Alternative energy and shale gas encyclopedia

901 Pages·2016·70.11 MB·English

by  Keeley

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY AND SHALE
GAS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY AND SHALE
GAS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Editedby
JAYH.LEHR
Editor-in-Chief
JACKKEELEY
SeniorEditor
THOMASB.KINGERY
InformationTechnology
WILEYSERIESONENERGY
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Alternativeenergyandshalegasencyclopedia/editedbyJayH.Lehr,editor-in-chief;JackKeeley,
senioreditor;ThomasBKingery,InformationTechnology.
pagescm
Includesindex.
ISBN978-0-470-89441-5(cloth)
1.Renewableenergysources–Encyclopedias. 2.Shalegas–Encyclopedias. I.Lehr,JayH.,1936-editor.
II.Keeley,J.W.(JackW.),editor. III.Kingery,ThomasB.,editor.
TJ807.4.E532015
621.04203–dc23
2014049361
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION:ENERGYDRIVESEVERYTHING
HowardC.Hayden xi
LISTOFCONTRIBUTORS xxv
PART I WIND
1 AcceptanceofWindPower:AnIntroductiontoDriversandSolutions 3
JacobLadenburg
2 WindPowerForecastingTechniques 10
MichaelNegnevitsky
3 MaximizingtheLoadinginWindTurbinePlants:(A)TheBetzLimit,
(B)DuctingtheTurbine 20
D.P.GeorgiouandN.G.Theodoropoulos
4 ModelingWindTurbineWakesforWindFarms 28
AngusC.W.CreechandWolf-GerritFru¨h
5 FatigueFailureinWindTurbineBlades 52
JuanC.Marin,AlbertoBarroso,FedericoParis,andJoseCanas
6 FloatingWindTurbines:TheNewWaveinOffshoreWindPower 69
AntoinePeifferandDominiqueRoddier
7 WindPower—AeoleTurnsMarine 80
RogerH.CharlierandAlexandreC.Thys
8 ImpactsofWindFarmsonWeatherandClimateatLocaland
GlobalScales 88
JustinJ.TraiteurandSomnathBaidyaRoy
v
vi CONTENTS
9 PowerCurvesandTurbulentFlowCharacteristicsofVerticalAxis
WindTurbines 104
KevinPopeandGregF.Naterer
10 WindmillBrakeStateModelsUsedinPredictingWind
TurbinePerformance 116
PanuPratumnopharatandPakSingLeung
11 LightningProtectionofWindTurbinesandAssociatedPhenomena 120
PetarSarajcev
12 WindTurbineWakeModeling—PossibilitieswithActuator
Line/DiscApproaches 141
StefanIvanellandRobertMikkelsen
13 RandomCascadeModelforSurfaceWindSpeed 153
R.BaileandJ.F.Muzy
14 WindPowerBudget 163
HugoAbiKaram
15 IdentificationofWindTurbinesinClosed-LoopOperationinthe
PresenceofThree-DimensionalTurbulenceWindSpeed:Torque
DemandtoMeasuredGeneratorSpeedLoop 169
MikelIribas-LatourandIon-Dore´Landau
16 IdentificationinClosed-LoopOperationofModelsforCollectivePitch
RobustControllerDesign 180
MikelIribas-LatourandIon-Dore´Landau
17 WindBasics—EnergyfromMovingAir 194
PublicDomain
18 Wind—ChronologicalDevelopment 201
PublicDomain
PART II SOLAR
19 SolarAirConditioning 205
WinstonGarcia-GabinandDarineZambrano
20 EnergyPerformanceofHybridCogenerationVersusSide-by-SideSolar
WaterHeatingandPhotovoltaicforSubtropicalBuildingApplication 212
Tin-TinChow,Ka-KuiTse,andNormanTse
21 PolycrystallineSiliconforThinFilmSolarCells 226
Nicola´sBudini,RobertoD.Arce,Roma´nH.Buitrago,andJavierA.Schmidt
22 SolarBasics–EnergyfromtheSun 233
PublicDomain
23 NASAArmstrongFactSheet:Solar-PowerResearch 241
PublicDomain
CONTENTS vii
24 SolarThermal–ChronologicalDevelopment 247
PublicDomain
25 Photovoltaic–ChronologicalDevelopment 249
PublicDomain
PART III GEOTHERMAL
26 Geothermal:History,Classification,andUtilization
forPowerGeneration 253
MathewC.AnekeandMathewC.Menkiti
27 EnhancedGeothermalSystems 265
RosemarieMohais,ChoashuiXu,PeterA.Dowd,andMartinHand
28 ThermodynamicAnalysisofGeothermalPowerPlants 290
MehmetKanogluandAliBolatturk
29 SustainabilityAssessmentofGeothermalPowerGeneration 301
AnnetteEvans,VladimirStrezov,andTimJ.Evans
30 GeothermalEnergyandOrganicRankineCycleMachines 310
BertrandF.Tchanche
31 LowTemperatureGeothermalEnergy:Geospatial
andEconomicIndicators 318
AlbertoGemelli,AdrianoMancini,andSauroLonghi
32 DryCoolingTowersforGeothermalPowerPlants 333
ZhiqiangGuan,KamelHooman,andHalGurgenci
33 ThermalStorage 350
MarcA.Rosen
34 ShallowGeothermalSystems:ComputationalChallenges
andPossibilities 368
RafidAl-Khoury
35 GeothermalBasics—WhatisGeothermalEnergy? 390
PublicDomain
36 Geothermal—ChronologicDevelopment 394
PublicDomain
PART IV HYDROPOWER
37 SustainabilityofHydropower 399
JoergHartmann
38 EnvironmentalIssuesRelatedtoConventionalHydropower 404
ZhiqunDanielDeng,AlisonH.Colotelo,RichardS.Brown,andThomasJ.Carlson
viii CONTENTS
39 SocialIssuesRelatedtoHydropower 410
JoergHartmann
40 SafetyinHydropowerDevelopmentandOperation 413
UrbanKjelle´n
41 PumpedHydroelectricStorage 423
JohnP.DeaneandBrianO’Gallachoir
42 GreenhouseGasEmissionsfromHydroelectricDamsinTropicalForests 426
PhilipM.Fearnside
43 PhysicalandMultidimensionalNumericHydraulicModeling
ofHydropowerSystemsandRivers 437
TimothyC.SassamanandDanielGessler
44 ExperimentalandNumericalModelingToolsforConventional
HydropowerSystems 448
ZhiqunDanielDeng,ThomasJ.Carlson,GeneR.Ploskey,RichardS.Brown,
GaryE.Johnson,andAlisonH.A.Colotelo
45 TheStateofArtonLargeCavernDesignforUndergroundPowerhouses
andSomeLong-TermIssues 465
O¨merAydan
46 HydroelectricPowerfortheNation 488
PublicDomain
47 HydropowerBasics—EnergyfromMovingWater 492
PublicDomain
48 Hydropower—ChronologicDevelopment 497
PublicDomain
PART V BATTERIESANDFUELCELLS
49 FuelCellControl 501
WinstonGarcia-GabinandDarineZambrano
50 RecentTrendsintheDevelopmentofProtonExchangeMembrane
FuelCellSystems 509
AmornchaiArpornwichanopandSuthidaAuthayanun
51 IntegratedSolidOxideFuelCellSystemsforElectricalPower
Generation—AReview 526
SuttichaiAssabumrungrat,AmornchaiArpornwichanop,
VorachatraSukwattanajaroon,andDangSaebea
52 PolymerElectrolytesforLithiumSecondaryBatteries 547
FionaM.GrayandMichaelJ.Smith
CONTENTS ix
53 RecyclingandDisposalofBatteryMaterials 566
MichaelJ.SmithandFionaM.Gray
54 ACORDC 578
M.AramAzadpour
PART VI RENEWABLEENERGYCONCEPTS
55 WillRenewablesCutCarbonDioxideEmissionsSubstantially? 581
HerbertInhaber
56 TheConceptofBase-LoadPower 585
MarkDiesendorf
57 TidalPowerHarnessing 590
RogerH.Charlier
58 TheLoadingofWaterCurrentTurbines:TheBetzLimit
andDuctedTurbines 601
D.P.GeorgiouandN.G.Theodoropoulos
59 BottledGasasHouseholdEnergy 606
MasamiKojima
60 ExergyAnalysis:TheoryandApplications 628
MarcA.Rosen
61 GlobalTransportEnergyConsumption 651
PatrickMoriartyandDamonHonnery
62 Biomass:RenewableEnergyfromPlantsandAnimals 657
PublicDomain
63 PlantingandManagingSwitchgrassasaBiomassEnergyCrop 663
PublicDomain
64 MunicipalSolidWaste—ChronologicalDevelopment 675
PublicDomain
65 Ethanol—ChronologicalDevelopment 677
PublicDomain
66 ThermalPropertiesofMethaneHydratebyExperimentandModeling
andImpactsUponTechnology 680
RobertP.Warzinski,IsaacK.Gamwo,EilisJ.Rosenbaum,EvgeniyM.Myshakin,
HaoJiang,KennethD.Jordan,NiallJ.English,andDavidW.Shaw(PublicDomain)
PART VII SHALEGAS
67 ShaleGasWillRocktheWorld 689
AmyMyersJaffe
x CONTENTS
68 WhatisShaleGas? 692
EnergyInformationAdministration(PublicDomain)
69 DirectionalandHorizontalDrillinginOilandGasWells 695
PublicDomain
70 HydraulicFracturingofOilandGasWellsDrilledinShale 697
PublicDomain
71 HydraulicFracturing:AGame-ChangerforEnergyandEconomies 700
IsaacOrr
72 ZeroDischargeWaterManagementforHorizontalShale
GasWellDevelopment 720
WestVirginiaWaterResearchInstitute(PublicDomain)
73 AboutOilShale—WhatisOilShale? 723
PublicDomain
74 NaturalGasBasics—HowWasNaturalGasFormed? 725
PublicDomain
75 NaturalGas—ChronologicalDevelopment 732
PublicDomain
76 EnergyMineralDivisionoftheAmericanAssociationofPetroleum
Geologists,ShaleGasandLiquidsCommitteeAnnualReport,FY2014 734
NeilS.Fishman,Chair
INDEX 857
INTRODUCTION: ENERGY DRIVES EVERYTHING
HowardC.Hayden
INTRODUCTION toourneedsnightandday.Thisiswhywecanaccuratelysay
thathumanlaborisaminusculepartoftheenergypicture.
Everything we make, bend, heat, cool, cut, fasten, grow, Over 90% of our energy comes from petroleum, natu-
harvest, move, or shape requires energy. That is, when we ral gas, coal, and uranium. Of the 9% contribution from
doanythingtoanything,weuseenergy.Ifwedoitbyhand, renewable energy sources, the venerable ones—hydro and
the energy source is the sun which produces the food we biomass—provideover80%.
eat. The human labor part of the energy picture, however, The electricity that powers our appliances is not pri-
is minuscule. Let me elaborate. The best coupling between mary energy, but rather a carrier of energy. In a coal-fired
man and machine is to put a person on a bicycle seat to power plant, for example, the fire boils water into high-
usethestronglegmusclestopushthepedals(whichinturn pressure, high-temperature steam that turns a turbine that
might turn an electric generator). Whereas a good athlete turnsanelectricity-producinggenerator.Thegeneratorener-
might produce a few hundred watts—perhaps as much as gizeselectrons,andourlightsandmachinesinturnbecome
a thousand watts—over a short period, it is a real chore to energizedbythoseelectrons.Theimportantdetailissimply
produce 100 W on a continuous basis for hours at a time. thattheelectricalpowerdoesnotcomefromthesocket,but
If we produce 100 W for a 10-hour period, the amount of ratherfromsomeprimarysourcelikecoalornaturalgas.
electrical energy produced is 100 W × 10 hours, which is Scientists began to understand things pertaining to elec-
1000 Wh, or 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh), for which the average tricityataboutthetimeoftheAmericanRevolution.Itwas
priceintheUnitedStatesisaboutadime.Notmanypeople not until 1882 that the first hydropower station produced
would be willing to work that hard, that long, for a mere commercialelectricalpower.Sousefuliselectricitythat,by
10cents.Foranothercomparison,a2000-Calorie1dailydiet now, afull40% ofourprimaryenergyintheUnitedStates
isequivalenttoabout100W. goesintotheproductionofelectricity.
To expand that perspective just a bit, let us look at the
amountofenergy—over100exajoules2—usedintheUnited
SOMEFUNDAMENTALS
Stateseveryyear.Averagedoverthe31.6millionsecondsin
the year, and over theroughly 315 millionUScitizens, our
Energy is somewhat hard to define. There is no instrument
rate of energy consumption is about 11,000 W per capita,
thatdirectlymeasuresenergy.Byandlarge,youcannotsee
about 110 times as much power as the average human pro-
itortouchit.Work,ontheotherhand,isfairlyeasytodefine.
ducesintheformofheat,orourathleteproduceswhileonthe
Work is the equivalent of lifting a weight to some height
bicycleseat.Alternatively,onemaythinkofourenergycon-
abovethestartingpoint;indeed,itistheproductoftheweight
sumptionasbeingequivalenttohaving110servantstending
andtheverticaldistancetheweightmoves.
Nowwecometothedefinition:Energyisthecapacityto
dowork.(Thatdoesnotmeantheabilitytodowork.)Inother
1OnefoodCalorie(capitalized)isonekilocalorie. words, energy isnumerically thesame as theworkitcould
2Wewillsaymoreaboutthisunitfurtheron. doatanimpossible100%efficiency.Inbroadestterms,there
xi