Alienation and Information Communications Technology Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor ...

369 Pages·2015·2.7 MB·English

Alienation
and
Information Communications Technology
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
De Montfort University, Leicester, UK.
by
Mike Healy
March 2014
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Abstract
This study explores the contradiction of the heart of ICT: the technology presents to us
all manner of possibilities yet it habitually fails to deliver on those promises. This failure
is often seen as arising from either a problem with the technology or end-user
proficiency. Thus better technology and/or more effective end-user education are seen
as the solutions.
This study is based on the premise that such approaches are inherently faulty and
explores how applicable notions of alienation can be in researching the contradictory
nature of ICT. By using a critical realist methodology allied to tools available through
PAR, this investigation engaged with participants in three distinct settings: ICT
professionals; scholars concerned with researching the ethical/societal implications of
ICT; and a group of pensioners living in South East London, UK.
The research interrogated the literature concerned with themes of alienation and ICT to
show there is a consensus that something called alienation does exist but that the term
is used as a poorly defined descriptor of dissatisfaction with ICT. It also revealed that
minimal research in the subject area has been undertaken using theories of alienation
and none which involve multiple settings.
The thesis makes an original and distinct contribution to the field by utilising one
approach to alienation, that presented by Marx, in three seemingly disconnected
settings to draw out the underlying commonalities shared by participants of these
settings. In doing so, the findings challenge widespread assumptions about end-user
experience of ICT and offer new insights into the much mentioned but little understood
alienated way we experience ICT. Moreover, the thesis, in moving beyond description
of alienation, to reveal the genesis of the condition, indicates the inadequacy of simply
using the term alienation as an ill-defined label to describe people’s experiences of ICT.
It argues for embracing a more rigorous approach to the issue to realise the significant
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potential offered through investigating and applying theories of alienation in research.
Additionally it advances knowledge in the area by emphasising shared experiences of
user groups which has considerable implications for future research. Finally the thesis
is unique in highlighting the prospective benefits to be realised by researchers in
adopting a CR methodology working in tandem with PAR methods in ICT research.
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Acknowledgements
As Chaucer, Cervantes and more recently, Estevez, and, above all, Homer, record no
journey is ever taken alone; each encounter and conversation with other travellers en
route adds to life’s rich tapestry, encourages reflection and opens up new directions
and possibilities. In undertaking this research, I have had the privilege of having had
numerous encounters and conversations with many interesting people. The first
acknowledgement must be to those who agreed to participate in the study: the ICT
professionals, the scholars, and the pensioners in Southwark. It is simply stating the
obvious to say that without their commitment this work would not have been completed.
As part of my debt to them, I have tried to preserve their presence in the narrative as
people rather than as simply subjects for study.
Secondly, I would like to say many thanks to Professor Simon Rogerson and,
especially, Dr Ben Fairweather, at the Centre for Computing and Social
Responsibility (CSSR), DMU, for agreeing to supervise the research in the first
instance; for all their helpful insights; and for making each conversation with them
fruitful and productive even when I was in unlikely places such as a Spanish phone box
with heavy, noisy lorries trundling by.
Details matter and so my thanks also goes to team DMU, especially Jimi O’Callaghan
in the admin office and Barbara Storer in the print department, for helping to iron out all
those irritating little administrative obstacles that arise in a work of this nature.
A word of thanks must also go to Iwona Wilkowska for her stimulating conversations
concerning CR.
Finally, I would like to say thank you to Joy for encouraging me to undertake this study
in the first place and for being supportive throughout. I could not wish for a better
person with whom to share life’s journey.
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This work is dedicated to my three grandchildren: Shardonnay, may you find you own
petit chemin soon; to Sharnelle and Shayniese, you little sweetie pies, may you
continue to thrive under the soft, warm Charentaise sun. We may dispute who the best
granddad in the universe is; but I know for sure who the best grandchildren are.

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In memory of Tony Cliff and Duncan Hallas
They simply helped to lift the scales from my eyes so I
could see life as it is and learn how to change it.

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Glossary
AUS Australia

CDA Critical discourse analysis

CCSR Centre for Computing and Social Responsibility

CPSR Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility

CR Critical realism

EU European Union

ICT Information and Communications Technology

IS Information Systems

IT Information Technology

PAR Participatory Action Research

SPAG Southwark Pensioners’ Action Group

SPC Southwark Pensioners’ Centre

SA South Africa

UK United Kingdom

US United States of America
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Abstract ................................................................................................................ i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ iii
Glossary ............................................................................................................. vi
Chapter 1: Introducing the research .................................................................... 1
1.1 Research motivation ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Research questions ............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Research aims .................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Structure of the thesis ......................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................. 7
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Alienation in ICT research ................................................................................... 8
2.3 Alienation in academic endeavour: key moments ................................................ 9
2.3.1 Alienation: a sociological perspective ............................................................ 9
2.3.2 Alienation: the Seeman perspective ............................................................ 10
2.3.3 Powerlessness ............................................................................................ 10
2.3.4 Meaninglessness ........................................................................................ 11
2.3.5 Anomie ....................................................................................................... 11
2.3.6 Isolation ...................................................................................................... 12
2.3.7 Self-estrangement....................................................................................... 12
2.3.8 Cultural estrangement ................................................................................. 13
2.3.9 Seeman’s alienation: a critique ................................................................... 13
2.4 Alienation the Marxist perspective ..................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 15
2.4.2 Species being ............................................................................................. 16
2.4.3 The transformative power of labour ............................................................. 16
2.4.4 The core aspects of alienation .................................................................... 17
2.4.5 Marx’s alienation: a critique ......................................................................... 24
2.5 ICT professionals .............................................................................................. 38
2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 38
2.5.2 Professionalism .......................................................................................... 38
2.5.3 Current Research on ICT professionals ...................................................... 40
2.6 Alienation theory in education ........................................................................... 42
2.7 The academic environment ............................................................................... 46
2.8 The scholars’ perspective .................................................................................. 51
2.9 ICT and learning ................................................................................................ 54
2.10 Echoes of Marx and Seeman .......................................................................... 54
2.11 ICT and ethics ................................................................................................. 58
2.12 ICT and age .................................................................................................... 60
2.13 Research age and ICT .................................................................................... 63
2.14 General concerns with ICT .............................................................................. 66
2.15 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 68
Chapter 3: Research design and methodology ................................................ 69
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 69
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3.2 Approaches to social research .......................................................................... 72
3.2.1 Positivism ................................................................................................... 72
3.2.2 Structural functionalism ............................................................................... 74
3.2.3 Interpretative approach ............................................................................... 75
3.2.4 Phenomenology .......................................................................................... 77
3.2.5 Hermeneutics .............................................................................................. 79
3.2.6 Postmodernism ........................................................................................... 80
3.2.7 Structuration theory..................................................................................... 81
3.2.8 Critical theory .............................................................................................. 84
3.2.9 Critical realism ............................................................................................ 86
3.2.10 Critical discourse analysis ......................................................................... 91
3.3 Participatory Action Research (PAR) ................................................................. 96
3.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 96
3.3.2 PAR Theory ................................................................................................ 96
3.3.3 PAR Tools ................................................................................................ 100
3.3.4 In-depth interviews .................................................................................... 101
3.3.5 Group interviews ....................................................................................... 102
3.3.6 Other Tools ............................................................................................... 103
3.3.7 Resonance ............................................................................................... 104
3.4 Stages in the development of the research ..................................................... 104
3.5 Approach to data analysis. .............................................................................. 111
3.5 Research ethical considerations ...................................................................... 112
Chapter 4: The case studies: Description of the selected organisations,
participants and interviewing processes ......................................................... 114
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 114
4.2 The Study Locations and Selection of Participants .......................................... 115
4.2.1 Work and information communications technology ................................... 115
4.2.2 The academics research the ethical and societal implications of ICT ........ 117
4.2.3 Age and information communications technology ..................................... 119
4.3 Nature of the chosen organisations and participants ....................................... 120
4.3.1 ICT professionals ...................................................................................... 120
4.3.2 ICT ethicists and academics concerned with ICT and society ................... 121
4.3.3 SPAG........................................................................................................ 124
4.4 The group sessions and individual interview processes explained .................. 127
4.4.1 ICT professionals ...................................................................................... 127
4.4.2 Academics/researchers ............................................................................ 128
4.4.3 SPAG........................................................................................................ 129
4.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 133
Chapter 5: Alienation and work: ICT professionals ......................................... 134
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 134
5.2 The state of the IT industry .............................................................................. 135
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5.3 Marx’s categories of alienation ........................................................................ 137
5.4 Control of the outcomes .................................................................................. 138
5.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 138
5.4.2 Control of outcomes .................................................................................. 138
5.5 Control of the work process ............................................................................. 140
5.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 140
5.5.2 Allocation of work ...................................................................................... 140
5.5.3 How work is billed ..................................................................................... 141
5.5.4 Highly prescriptive job functions ................................................................ 142
5.5.5 The changing nature of IT contracts .......................................................... 143
5.5.6 The impact of standardisation and commoditisation .................................. 143
5.5.7 Awarding contracts: The impact on employment ....................................... 144
5.5.8 Travel........................................................................................................ 146
5.5.9 Relationships with professionals working for other companies .................. 147
5.5.10 Re-engineering the work process ............................................................ 148
5.6 The Management ............................................................................................ 149
5.6.1 Management structures ............................................................................ 149
5.6.2 The Bench ................................................................................................ 151
5.6.3 The impact of the Bench ........................................................................... 151
5.7 Analysis ........................................................................................................... 152
5.8 Issues of validation, reliability, bias and ethics ................................................. 157
5.9 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 158
Chapter 6: Alienation, ethics and societal issues of ICT: The scholars’
perspective...................................................................................................... 160
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 160
6.2 Reprising the environment ............................................................................... 162
6.3 Alienation: a review ......................................................................................... 163
6.4 Commitment to the subject .............................................................................. 164
6.5 Creativity ......................................................................................................... 166
6.5.1 Research as a creative activity.................................................................. 167
6.5.2 Creativity in outcomes ............................................................................... 168
6.5.3 Creativity as a requirement for the research process ................................ 170
6.6 Collaboration ................................................................................................... 171
6.7 Research and competition ............................................................................... 173
6.7.1 Competition for funding ............................................................................. 173
6.7.2 Research and competition to publish ........................................................ 175
6.7.3 The peer review system ............................................................................ 176
6.7.4 Other forms of competition ........................................................................ 177
6.7.5 Competition: positive and negative impacts. ............................................. 178
6.8 Control of outcomes ........................................................................................ 182
6.8.1 Control of content ..................................................................................... 182
6.8.2 Control of product ..................................................................................... 183
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