Table Of ContentAlgorithmPirco gramD ebugging
ACM DistinguiDsihsesde rtations
IDS2
AbstractMieocnh anisamnsd L anguaDgees igbny,P auNl. Hi lfinger
FormalS pecificaotfi Ionnt eractGirvaep hicPrso gramming
La.nguagbeys W,i lliRa.mM allgren
AlgorithPrmoigcr amD ebuggi,n gbEyh udY .S hapiro
AlgorithmPirco gramD ebugging
EhudY .S hapiro
TheM ITP ress
CambridMgases,a chusetts
LondonE,n gland
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anym eanse,l ectroornm iecc hanicianlc,l udpihnogt ocopyriencgo,r dionrgb ,y
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Thibso okw as printaendd b ounidn t heU niteSdt atoefsAm erica.
PublishneortT'ehs:i fso rmaitsi ntendteord e ducteh ec osotf p ublishicnegr tain
worki nb ookf orma ndt os horttehneg apb etweeedni toprrieapla raatnidot nh e
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photograpthhient ge xotf t his bdoiorke cftrloym t hea uthort'ysp escroirp t
word-procoeustspourt .
Thisd issertwaasti porne senttoet dh eF aculotfyt heG raduaStceh oolo fY ale
UniversoinMt ayy 1 982.
Aparftr oms omes tylicshtaincg aensd t hec orrecotfito ynp ograpehrircoalrt sh,e
onldyi fferiennc coen teinsit n S ecti2o.n1s. a3nd 4.5T.o thessee ctitohnesr heas
beena ddead d escripwtiitohno,pu rtoo fo,f r esulobttsa inien{d 8 89,1 ].
Thet hesriess earwcash s upportbeyd t heN ationSacli enFcoeu ndatigorna,n t
noM.C S8002447.
LibraorfCy o ngreCsast alogIinPn ugb licaDtaitoan
ShapiErohu,d Y.
AlgorithPrmoigcr aDme bugging
(ACMd istingudiisshseedr t)at ions
Thes(iPsh .}D-.YaleU nivers1i9t8y2,
Bibliograpp.h y:
Incluidnedse x.
1.D ebuggiinncg o mputsecri en2c.Pe r olog
(Computeprr ograml angu)aIg .Te itlIeI S.e ries
QA76.6.S14998 3 001.64'2 82-24992
ISBN0- 262-19218-7
MIT Pre.e
0262192187
""II"I"
SHAPIRO
ALGORITHPMRIOCG M
SeriFeosr eword
TheD istinguiDsohcetdo rDails sertaSteiroinie ssa w elcomoeu tgrowth
ofA CM'sa nnuaclo ntecsot-,s ponsobryTe hde M ITP resfso,tr heb est
doctordails sertaitnci oomnp uter-relateadn dse cnigeinnceee ring.
Durintgh ej udginpgr ocestsh aits d esignteods eletchte a nnual
winneirt,h asi nevitadbelvye loptehdas to meo ft het hesebesi ncgo n
siderientd h efi narlo unadr eo fs uchhi gqhu alitthyat th eayl sdoe serve
pUblicatTihoinbs.o oki so neo ft hosdei ssertatIinto hnejs u.d gmeonft
theA CM selection coamnmdiT thteeM eI T Pressi,tt ruldye serves
speciraelc ogniatsia o Dni stinguiDsohcetdo rDails sertation.
Dr.E hudS hapiwrroo thei st hesoins" AlgoritPhrmoigcr aDme bug
gingw"h ilaet Y aleU niversiHtiys.t hesiasd viswoar sD r.D ana
Angluiann,dt het heswiass s elecbtyeY da lfeo sru bmisstioot nh e1 982
competitTihoenD .o ctorDails sertaAtwiaorndc ommittoefAe C M rec
ommendeidt psu blicabteicoanu sietp roducticvoemlbyi neelse ments
ofp rogrammilnagn guageensv,i ronmelnotgsi,ac n,d i nducet iinvfer
encet op roduceef fectdievbeu ggianigd sI.t su seo ft heP ROLOG
languapgreo vidaense fficienitm plementaotfit ohned ebuggianlgg o
rithms.
WalteMr. C arlson
ChairmaAnC,M AwardCso mmittee
ToK arlR .P opepr
forh isi npsirinign telleccotuuraalag ned c larity
and
tom y parentSsh,i mona ndM iriam
forb ringimneg u pk nowintgh at
thew orlids a greaplta cteo b e
Acknowledgments
Firsta ndf.o remo.ts hti,tsh esoiwse si tssh apaen dc ontetnotm y
.
advisDoarn,a A ngluiSnh.e h asd irecmtye dr esearscihn cIec amet o
Yale, haansdh ada greaitn fluenocnew hatI h avea ccompliisnh ed
these yaenadrsw ,h atI k nowt odayH.e rt horoughnaensdss incerity
ind ointgh iwsi lble a modeflo rm e int hey earst oc ome. Shea lso
trietdo teacmhe herh ighp rofessiaonnda ple rsonaslt andards;
althouIgr he sisatses dt rongas lIyc oultdh,e rea res tislolm et racoefs
themi nt hitsh eiss.
DrewM cDermoetstc ortmeyd fi rsts tepisnP rolo.g He gavem e
somei nsighstufgugle stiwohnisc,h mmaed wei shhe h ad gimvee lno ts
more.J ustt on amea fewt,h ed efinitioofin n cremenitnadlu ctive
inferentcheei, d eoaf m echanizing oraclaen dt qhueem reitoehdss,
thatl edt o thea lgoritthhma td iagnosfiensi tfea iluwreer,e a ll
originaitnes do meo ff-hacnodm menthse madew henh ef ailteod
avoimde int hec orridor.
AlanP erlainsd M ikeF ischaelrs coo ntributtote hde finfaolr m
oft het hesise,s pecitaoli ltyis n troducatnidoc no nclusiWointsh.o ut
Alan'esn couragemIew notu,l ndo th aveh adt hen ervteo m akes ome
oft heb olcdl aiImh sa vem ade,a ndh isfl amboymaanntn ehre lpetdo
counter-baDlaannac'cesa utiaonnds ereyn.i t
Ig ota lotof s uppofrrotm thep eopoleft hel ogipcr ogramming
communityIh. a vel earnae ldo tf rom discussiownist hL awrence
Byrd,K en Bowen,Al an ColmerauMeara,r tevna nE mden,Bo b
KowalskFir,a nkM cCabeF,e rnandPoe reiraan,dD avidW arrent,o
namea fe.w
DavidW arren'Psr oloigm plementawtasi oann indispensable
.
researtcoho. l Firsta crotshse o ceaann,d t heanc rotshse A rpanehte,
remindmeed t haIta m nott heo nly Prolog ihnat chkewe orr led,v en
though thati'tfs e ehalotswY al.e
-ix-
DonalMdi chiee'nst husiaasbmo umty researwcash a nu ltimate
sourcoefp leasuraen,d h elpemde feetlh awth atI am doinmga yb e
worthw hile. Togethewri thA lanP erlihse, s howedm e that
intellecctuurailo saintdoy p enneasrsea geleasnsds tatusless.
BobN ix kempet i nformoendw hati sg oinogn int hew orld,
whilIe was toop reoccupwiietdhm y workt op aya ttentitoon
anythienslge .I t hinIkh a vel earnt morec oambpouutstec ri enfcreo m
discussiwoints hh im thanf roma llo ft hec ourseIs havet aken
toget.h ewrIi sIhc oultda khei mw itmhe as ano fficmea tew herever
Ig o.H e alsdoe votae dl oot fh ist imte or eadgi anndc orrectmiyn g
thesiwsh,i ccho mpensaftoerds omeo fm y ignoraonfcE en glish and
Combinatorics.
Manyp eoplmea des pecific teccohnntirciablu ttoito hnets h esis,
whicIh w ouldl ikteo a cknowledFgrea:n kM cCabew as thefi rstt o
suggetshta tth eq uercyo mplexoiftt yh ed iagnoasligso ritmhamysb e
improvedo;n layf tetrh irse alizadtiidoI nb,eg itno b elietvhea tth ey
canb em oret haann e xerciinsf eo rmalisozmien vga guien tuitibounts ,
a readle buggitnogo. l He alsof oundh ow to diagnoPsreo log
prograwmist nhe gatn.i o
RyszarMdi chalsiknis isotneu dn derstandwihnagtI wasd oing,
whicmha det hincglse arteorm e tooh;e o fferseodm et erminological
improvementthsa mta det hef ormamla chineIryu sedm orei ntuitive
anda ppeal.i ng
BobM oored ebuggemdy debuggianlgg oritwhhmi lIe w as at
SRIa,n dr efutmeyd n aivbee litehfa at binarsye artcehc hnicqouuel d
ber eadiulsye idn t hed iagnoosfni osn termiion.na t
DaviPdl aistseudg gesatnei dm provemteont th ea lgoritthhamt
diagnotseersm inatwiiotnih n corroeucttp uwth,i cIha cceptweidt hout
hesitna.t Hieo thenre futhedi si mprovemebnuttfi, n allwye madei t
togethteotr h ec urrednitv ide-and-aqlugeorryi .t hm
Last butn otl eastt,h eT oolgsro upa tY alea,n di np articular
JohnE lliSst,e vWeoo d, andN atM ishkimna,d et heu seo fo ur
DEC-20 andi tssu rroundimnagc hinetroyl eraabnldee ,v enf un.I
cannoitm aginweh atm y productiasv itayp rogrammearn das a
writewro uldh aveb eenw ithouZt, S M, andt hek nid helpt hey
-x-
providmeed. Theyh avea lscoo ntributtote hdel iterasapreyc otf t he
(
thesibsy,t ellimneg o r,m orea ccuratbeyla yl,l owimneg t op icakn d
)
puttheZ enp arabalbeo utth ed rawgi onft hefi sh.
Ina ddititootn h ei ndividmueanltsi onaebdo veI,w isht ot hank
the NationaSlc iencFeo undatiownh,o se grant,n umbered
MCS800244s7u,p portmeedd urintgh el asttw oy ears.
Contents
Chapte1r:I ntroduc.t i'o.. n . 1
1.1T hep roblem 1
• . . • .
1.2R esul.t .s . 2
. • • . . •
1.3R elatweodr k. 6
• • . • •
1.3.T1h en eedf ord ebguging. • • • • • • 6
1.3.T2h es otfwareng-ieneerpienrsgp ectoinvd ee bugg.i.n.g.. . ...
8
1.3.P3r ogratme stgi.n . • . . . . • • • • • • . 10
1.3H.e4u risatpiproca chetso d ebugging 12
• . . • •
14. Outline.. . 13
• • . • . . • • • • •.. • • • • • •
Chapte2r:C oncepotfsl ogipcr ogrammianngdP rol.o g 15
2.1L ogipcr ogra.m s 16
. • . • • •
2.1.C1o mputati.o .n s 17
• •
2.1.S2e mantics. 19
. . . . •
2.1.C3o mplexmietasyu res 22
2.2P rolgo . . . . . . . ... ... .. .. .. .2. 3 .
2.2.T1h ee xecutainodnb acktragc mkeicnhani.s m 23
2.2.R2u nnign timaen dt he" occcuhre ck•" • • • 24
2.2.C3o ntro.l . . 26
• • • . . • • • "'
2.2.S4i de-effects 28
• • . • • • •
2.2.S5e conodr deprr edicates 28
2.2.M6e ta-praomgmring • • 30
Chapte3r:P rograDmi agnos.i s. 32
3.1As sumptioanbso utth ep rogrammilnagn.gg uea. ' • 33
3.2D iagnosintge rminatwiiotinhn corroeucttp ut 37
3.2.C1o rrect.n ess '37
• • • • . • • • • • • •
3.2.2A single-sgt eaplpgionritfhomr diagnosing
incorrpercotc edu.r es 39
• • • • .
3.2.A3 P roloigm plementation. 40
• • .• . • . . . • • •
