Alaska Natives and American Laws

520 Pages·2012·4.18 MB·English

by  David S. Case

alaska natives and

american laws
Rededicated to
the Indigenous Peoples of Alaska
Past, Present, and Future
alaska natives and

american laws
Third Edition
DAVID S. CASE
and
DAVID A. VOLUCK
University of Alaska Press
Fairbanks
© 2012 University of Alaska Press
All rights reserved
Originally published by the Alaska Native Foundation, 1978, as:
The Special Relationship of Alaska Natives to the Federal Government: An Historical and Legal
Analysis
Revised edition © 1984 University of Alaska Press; All Rights Reserved
Second edition © 2002 University of Alaska Press; All Rights Reserved
University of Alaska Press
P.O. Box 756240
Fairbanks, AK 99775-6240
ISBN 978-1-60223-175-7 (paper); 978-1-60223-176-4 (e-book)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Case, David S.
Alaska natives and American laws / written by David S. Case and David A. Voluck. -- 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60223-175-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-60223-176-4 (electronic book)
1. Alaska Natives—Legal status, laws, etc. 2. Alaska Natives—Government relations. I. Voluck,
David A. (David Avraham) II. Title.
KFA1705.C37 2012
342.79808’72—dc23
2011041057
Cover design by Dixon J. Jones
This publication was printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements for
ANSI / NISO Z39.48–1992 (R2002) (Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials).
Printed in the United States
Citation and style note: Cite as Alaska Natives and American Laws (3rd edition). The text con-
forms generally to The Chicago Manual of Style (16th edition), University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Footnotes and bibliography citations conform generally to The Bluebook: A Uniform System of
Citation (18th edition), the Harvard Law Review Association, 2005. Unless otherwise noted, ci-
tations to the Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.), United States Code Annotated (U.S.C.A.),
and the Alaska Statutes (Alaska Stat.) are to the 2010 editions of those codified regulations, laws,
and statutes, as amended, and are current at least as of December 31, 2010.
Contents
Foreword to the Third Edition xi
Foreword to the Second Edition xii
Foreword to the First Edition xiv
Acknowledgments to the Third Edition xv
Acknowledgments to the Second Edition xvi
Acknowledgments to the First Edition xvii
1 The Federal relaTionship To alaska naTives 1
I. The Federal–Native Relationship Generally 1
A. A Unique Relationship 1
B. Common Law Basis 2
C. International Legal Principles 6
D. Federal Plenary Power 20
E. Defining the Relationship 22
II. History of the Alaska Native Relationship 24
A. Early Years (1867–1905) 24
B. Middle Period (1904–1971) 26
C. ANCSA and Its Effect 33
III. The Modern Relationship 40
A. The Abstract Relationship 40
B. The Specific Aspects 42
IV. General Conclusions 50
2 aboriginal TiTle 53
I. Introduction 53
A. Generally 54
B. The Rule of Discovery 54
C. M’Intosh—The Exclusive Right of Purchase 55
D. Worcester—Protection Against States and Others 55
E. Three Elements 56
II. The Obligation to Protect Aboriginal Title 56
A. Common Law Principle 56
B. The Statutory Requirements 58
III. Extinguishment of Aboriginal Title 60
A. Purchase and Conquest 60
B. Congress and Its Intent 60
IV. Recognition and Other Rights to Compensation 61
A. Recognized and Unrecognized Aboriginal Title 61
B. Jurisdictional Acts 61
vi Contents
V. Aboriginal Title in Alaska 61
A. Introduction 61
B. Treaty of 1867 62
C. The Obligation of Protection 66
D. Preserving the Status Quo 70
E. Events After Statehood 72
F. Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) 75
VI. Conclusion 79
3 reservaTions 81
I. Introduction 81
A. Alaska Pacific Fisheries v.United States 81
B. General Principles 82
II. Development and Decline of the Alaska Reservation Policy 85
A. Eight Phases 85
B. 1891–1919—Metlakatla and the First Executive Order Reserves 85
C. 1920–1933—“Public Purpose” Reserves 96
D. 1936–1940—Application of the IRA to Alaska and the Small Reservation Policy 98
E. 1940–1943—Reversal of Policy and Creation of the Venetie Reserve 100
F. 1944–1952—The IRA Reserves: A Policy Frustrated 100
G. 1952–1960—Dormant Period 108
H. 1960–1971—Restrictions and Revocation 108
III. Some Conclusions 110
A. Trust Responsibility to Land Before ANCSA 110
B. Trust Responsibility to Land After ANCSA 111
C. Guardianship 111
4 naTive alloTmenTs and TownsiTes 113
I. Generally 113
II. Allotments 114
A. Allotment Policies 114
B. Substantive Provisions of the Alaska Native Allotment Act 120
C. Changing Alaska Allotment Policies 121
D. From Trust to Restricted Status 134
E. Allotment Administration 136
III. Native Townsites 141
A. Townsite Administration 141
B. Federal Obligations 144
C. Native Occupancy Rights 146
IV. Jurisdictional Issues 152
A. General 152
B. Federal Court Jurisdiction 152
C. Effect of P.L. 280 153
D. Probate 156
E. Federal Income Tax 161
F. Condemnation 162
V. Conclusion 162
Contents vii
5 anCsa: The alaska naTive Claims seTTlemenT aCT 165
I. Introduction 165
II. Background: ANCSA’s Compromises 167
III. ANCSA’s Provisions 170
A. Generally 170
B. Land Allocations 171
C. “Surface” and “Subsurface” 174
D. Easements and Other Encumbrances 174
E. The Monetary Settlement 175
F. Post-ANCSA Institutions 176
IV. ANCSA’s Evolution 179
A. Generally 179
B. Refinancing ANCSA (The NOLs) 180
C. Growing ANCSA: 8(a) and Natural Resource Revenue 183
D. Restructuring ANCSA 185
V. Conclusions 198
6 hisTory oF alaska naTive serviCes 199
I. Overview 199
A. Bureau of Education—1884 to 1931 199
B. Bureau of Indian Affairs—1931 to Present 201
II. Education 201
A. History of Education in Alaska 201
B. Status of Education in Alaska 205
C. Federal Support for State Education 209
D. Conclusion 211
III. Economic Development 211
A. Introduction 211
B. Reindeer 212
C. The Hydaburg Model Village 215
D. Fish Canneries 216
E. ANCSA and the Indian Financing Act 218
F. Conclusion 220
IV. Welfare Benefits and Services 221
A. Introduction 221
B. Copper Center and Vicinity—1907 to 1910 221
C. The Snyder Act 222
D. BIA Social Service Programs 224
E. Conclusion 229
V. Indian Health Service 229
A. History (1868 to 1955) 229
B. Native Health Conditions 230
C. The Alaska Native Medical Center 231
D. The Alaska Native Health Service 232
VI. The Indian Self-Determination Act 232
A. The 1975 Enactment 232
B. 1988 Amendments 233
C. 1994 Amendments 234
D. BIA and IHS Compacting 235
VII. Conclusion 235
viii Contents
7 naTive enTiTlemenT To serviCes 237
I. Introduction 237
A. Three Legal Theories 237
B. Authority and Obligation 238
II. Sources of Federal Authority to Provide Human Services 239
A. Generally 239
B. Guardianship as a Source of Federal Authority 239
C. Guardianship in Alaska 242
D. The Snyder Act 244
E. Conclusion 245
III. Federal Social Service Obligations 245
A. Executive Obligations 245
B. Due Process 246
C. Statutory Entitlement 251
IV. Beyond Due Process and Statutory Entitlement 256
A. The Ruiz Approach 256
B. The White v. Califano Approach 256
C. Ruiz-Califano and the Transformation of Guardianship 257
V. Indian Preferences 258
A. Federal Indian Preference Legislation 258
B. Federal Indian Preference Decisions 258
C. ANCSA Preference 260
VI. Conclusion 261
A. Describing the “Legal Relationship” 261
B. Authority and Obligation 261
C. ANCSA and Federal Obligations 263
8 subsisTenCe in alaska 265
I. Protecting Subsistence Generally 265
A. Introduction 265
B. “Subsistence” 266
C. Subsistence Protection Alternatives 267
II. Federal Preemption in Alaska 270
A. General 270
B. Preemptive Treaties 271
C. Preemptive Statutes 281
D. Trust Responsibility for Subsistence 290
III. Subsistence and ANCSA 291
A. Introduction 291
B. The Effect of ANCSA 291
C. Problems with State Protection 292
D. ANILCA 295
E. Subsistence on the Outer Continental Shelf 315
F. The Subsistence Defense in Federal and State Criminal Prosecutions 316
IV. Possibilities for Tribal Control 318
A. Introduction 318
B. Exclusive Tribal Jurisdiction 319
C. Exclusive State Jurisdiction 319
D. Concurrent Jurisdiction 320
E. Comanagement 321
V. Conclusions 324
Contents ix
9 modern alaska naTive governmenTs and organizaTions 325
I. Introduction 325
II. Governmental Organizations 326
A. Generally 326
B. Territorial and State Municipalities 326
C. Traditional and IRA Governments 327
D. Tlingit and Haida Central Council 335
III. Economic Profit Corporations 341
A. Generally 341
B. IRA Corporations 341
C. ANCSA Corporations 343
IV. Nonprofit Development and Service Corporations 345
A. Background 345
B. Tanana Chiefs Conference 347
C. Maniilaq Association 353
D. General Conclusions 357
V. Multiregional Political Organizations 357
A. Introduction 357
B. Alaska Native Brotherhood and Sisterhood 358
C. Alaska Federation of Natives 362
D. Tribal Advocacy Organizations 365
E. Marine Mammal Commissions 367
F. International Organizations 369
10 sovereignTy: alaska naTive selF-governmenT 373
I. Introduction 373
A. The Meaning of “Sovereignty” 373
B. Alaska Native Self-Government 374
II. Native American Sovereignty in General 376
A. The Interplay of History and Law 376
B. Inherent Sovereignty—The Most Basic Principle 377
C. Preemption and Infringement—Limits on the States 378
D. Powers of Native Governments 379
E. Vacillating Federal Policies 381
III. Legal History of Alaska Native Sovereignty 382
A. Early History 382
B. Change in Status 383
C. The Indian Reorganization Act 384
D. Tribal Political Status 387
IV. ANCSA and Subsequent Events 389
A. General Observations 389
B. The Jurisdiction Problem 391
C. Other Aspects of Sovereignty 392
D. The Cultural Aspect 394
V. State and Native Jurisdiction in Alaska 395
A. Jurisdiction in General 395
B. Jurisdiction over Territory: The “Indian Country” Question 397
C. Jurisdiction over Persons and Property 399
D. Subject Matter Jurisdiction 400