Table Of ContentAir-Sea Exchange
of Gases and Particles
NATO ASI Series
Advanced Science Institutes Series
A series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NATO Science Committee,
which aims at the dissemation of advanced scientific and technological knowledge,
with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities.
The series is published by an international board of publishers in conjunction with the
NATO Scientific Affairs Division
A Life Sciences Plenum Publishing Corporation
B Physics London and New York
C Mathematical D. Reidel Publishing Company
and Physical Sciences Dordrecht, Boston and Lancaster
D Behavioural and Social Sciences Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
E Engineering and The Hague, Boston and Lancaster
Materials Sciences
F Computer and Systems Sciences Springer Verlag
G Ecological Sciences Heidelberg
Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences No. 108
Air-Sea Exchange
of Gases and Particles
edited by
Peter S. Liss
School of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia, Norwich, U.K.
and
W. George N. Slinn
Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Battelle Memorial Institute, Richland, Washington, U.S.A.
D. Reidel Publishing Company
Dordrecht / Boston / Lancaster
Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on
Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles
University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, U.S.A.
19-30 July, 1982
L,ibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Air-sea exchange of gases and particles.
(NATO ASI series. Series C, Mathematical and physical sciences; no. 108)
"Advanced Study Institute on Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles
held at the University of New Hampshire from 19 to 30 July 1982"-P.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Ocean-atmosphere interaction-Congresses. 2. Gases-Congresses.
3. Particles-Congresses. I. Liss, P. S. II. Slinn, W. George N., 1938-
III. Advanced Study Institute on Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles
(1982: University of New Hampshire) IV. Series: NATO ASI series.
Series C, Mathematical and physical sciences; 108.
GC190.A35 1983 551.57'09162 83-9521
ISBN-13: 978-94-009-7171-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-7169-1
001: 10.1007/978-94-009-7169-1
Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company
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D. Reidel Publishing Company is a member of the Kluwer Academic Publishers Group
All Rights Reserved
© 1983 by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1983
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording
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copyright owner.
CONTENTS
INTERFACE - P. S. LL6.6 and W. G. N. SUYl.H xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XLll
INTRODUCTORY METEOROLOGY AND FLUID DYNAMICS - L. Ha.6.6~
l. Some Deductions from Basic Physics
2 2. Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulations II
3. Synoptic Scale Circulations 23
4. Mesoscale Circulations 27
5. Convection and Stability 30
6. Turbulence and the Planetary Boundary Layer 35
7. Interface Dynamics 39
7.1 Flow at a solid, level surface 39
7.2 Flow at a fluid interface 42
7.3 Stability effects in the surface layer 42
7.4 Parameterization 43
8. Practical Aspects of Atmospheric Transports 45
8.1 Vertical transports 45
8.2 Horizontal transports 46
INTRODUCTORY PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY - F. Vob.6oYl. 53
Large-scale Oceanography 53
Geostrophic, baroclinic and barotropic
motions 54
"Ekman" transport 56
"Sverdrup" transport 58
Westward intensifcation 59
Physical properties of sea water 62
Water property distributions and tracers 63
Thermohaline circulation 65
Diffusion and mixing 68
Turbulent mixing 69
Mesoscale Oceanography 71
Ocean eddies 71
Gulf stream rings 72
Frontal processes 76
Tides and large-scale waves 80
Internal waves 83
The Oceanic Mixed Layer 84
Time and space scales 84
Introduction 85
Modelling the mixed layer 85
Forcing variables 87
vi CONTENTS
Solar radiation 87
Wind forcing 90
Buoyancy 91
Conservation relations 92
Shear instabilities 92
Entrainment 93
Advection 93
Langmuir circulations 94
Role of the mixed layer in ocean dynamics
and climate 97
98
Sea Surface Waves
98
Introduction
103
Wave breaking
106
Wave generation and growth
111
Appendix: Definitions
MICROBIOLOGICAL AND ORGANIC-CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE
SURFACE AND MIXED LAYERS - J. M~N. S~~b~h 121
Introduction 121
1. Planktonic Microorganisms and Their Trophic
Structure 123
1.1 Evolution of decomposing and synthesizing
microorganisms and their processes 123
1.2 Trophic structure and transfer 126
1.3 Primary producers (the Phototrophs and
Chemolithotrophs) 129
1.4 Saprotrophs (the Heterotrophic Bacteria) 130
1.5 Biotrophs (the Protozoa) 131
2. Uptake and Release of Gases During the Synthesis
and Decay of Organic Matter and its Control by
the Solar Cycle 135
2.1 Cycling of gases and organic matter by
aerobic processes 135
2.2 Cycling of gases and organic matter by
anaerobic processes 138
2.3 Diel cycle of chemical activity 140
2.4 Size fractions of plankton and organic
matter 143
2.5 Physical factors that control microbiological
processes 146
3. Organic-Microbial Films that Form the Sea's Skin 148
3.1 Physical factors holding molecules and
microbes at the sea-air interface 148
3.2 Nature of the organic films 149
3.3 Nature of the microorganisms colonizing
and aggregating at the surface film 154
3.4 Spatial and temporal variation in the film 158
3.5 Crucial function of the surface film 162
CONTENTS vii
GASES AND THEIR PRECIPITATION SCAVENGING IN THE MARINE
ATMOSPHERE - L. K. Pet~ 173
1. Introduction 173
2. Trace Gas Concentrations in Marine Air 175
2.1 Concentrations of long-lived species 176
2.2 Concentrations of short-lived species 177
2.3 Concentrations of free radicals 178
3. Homogeneous Marine Air Chemistry 179
3.1 Photochemical considerations 179
3.2 Pseudo-steady state 181
3.3 The NO-N02-03 subsystem 182
3.4 The CH4- CO oxidation sequence 184
3.5 The HOx and ROx radical chemistry 186
3.6 The chemistry of S02 188
4. Exchange of Simple Soluble Gases with Hyorometears 189
4.1 Basic principles 189
4.2 The overall mass transfer coefficient 196
4.3 Individual phase-controlled processes 198
5. Exchange of Reactive and Ionizable Gases 199
5.1 Equilibrium considerations 200
5.2 Enhancement of mass transfer rate 201
5.3 S02 absorption by water 205
6. The Role of Circulation Within Drops 211
6.1 The work of Kronig and Brink 211
6.2 Circulation with chemical reaction 214
6.3 Comparison of theory with experimental
results 216
7. Heterogeneous Processes 217
7.1 General transport equations 218
7.2 Particle-gas interaction 219
7.3 Hydrometeor-gas interaction 225
8. Scavenging in Complex Systems 229
8.1 Spatial effects and equilibrium and rever
sible scavenging 229
8.2 Simultaneous absorption of several gases 230
GAS TRANSFER: EXPERIMENTS AND GEOCHEMICAL IMPLICATIONS -
P. S. 241
L~~
1. Introduction 241
2. Laboratory Sutdies of Air-Water Gas Transfer 243
2.1 Physical transfer processes 244
2.2 Modelling approaches 251
2.3 Gases for which ra » rw 253
2.4 Chemical transfer processes 254
3. Air-Sea Gas Transfer in the Field 260
3.1 Gases for which rw » ra 260
3.2 The role of bubbles 268
viii CONTENTS
3.3 Gases for which ra » rw 269
4. possible Role of Natural and Pollutant Films
in Air-Sea Gas Transfer 270
4.1 Laboratory studies 270
4.2 The role of films in gas transfer at the
sea surface. 274
5. The Role of Air-Sea Gas Exchange in Geochemical
Cycling 276
5.1 Introduction 276
5.2 Hydrogen 277
5.3 Carbon 280
5.4 Nitrogen 283
5.5 Oxygen 285
5.6 Sulphur 285
5.7 Chlorine 287
5.8 Iodine 289
5.9 Conclusions 289
AIR-TO-SEA TRANSFER OF PARTICLES - W. G. N. S£1~~ 299
1. Introduction 299
2. Residence Times 300
2.1 Aerosol particles 301
2.2 Wet and dry deposition velocities 303
2.3 A simple model for TW and Td 308
2.4 Scavenging ratios and TW 309
2.5 Scavening rates and Tw 310
2.6 Scavenging efficiencies and TW 312
2.7 Scavenging as a stochastic process 313
2.8 SUIIllllary 317
3. Scavenging by Precipitation 317
3.1 Rain scavenging by bugs 318
3.2 Scavenging rates and the collection 319
efficiency
3.3 Collection by diffusion 321
3.4 Impaction, interception, etc. 325
3.5 Collision efficiency summary 330
3.6 Approximate scavenging rates 333
4. Scavenging by Storms 338
4.1 Bomb debris data and Junge's model 339
4.2 Particle-size dependence of scavenging
ratios 344
4.3 Scavenging and precipitation efficiencies 349
4.4 Storm efficiencies 354
4.5 Summary for Tw 357
5. Dry Deposition of Particles 361
5.1 The dry flux 361
5.2 Turbulence 363
5.3 A simple two-layer model 368
CONTENTS ix
5.4 Some small-scale problems 376
6. More Problems with Dry Deposition 382
6.1 The continuity equation and boundary
conditions 382
6.2 Resuspension and spray scavenging 385
6.3 The constant-flux condition 388
6.4 Resistance models 391
6.5 Horizontal and vertical concentration
gradients 393
6.6 Actual deposition and mass-mean values 394
6.7 Residence times, revisited 396
THE PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND BACTERIAL ENRICHMENT
OF THE SEA-SALT AEROSOL - V. C. Bia.n.c./w.Jtd 407
1. Introduction 407
2. Production of the Sea-Salt Aerosol 408
2.1 Bubble-size distributions 408
2.2 Bubble dissolution 412
2.3 Percentage of sea surface producing
sea-salt particles 413
2.4 Ejection of sea-salt particles from the
sea 414
2.5 Seawater in the atmosphere 420
3. Distribtuion of the Sea-Salt Aerosol 421
3.1 Sea-salt concentration as a function of
wind speed 422
3.2 Size distribution of sea-salt particles 426
3.3 The sea-salt inversion 428
3.4 An attempt to find the salt inversion 432
4. Enrichment of Bacteria in Jet and Film Drops 433
4.1 Jet drop enrichment 434
4.2 Film drop enrichment 441
4.3 Health hazards 442
4.4 Bacterial as ice nuclei 443
5. Conclusions 444
PARTICLE GEOCHEMISTRY IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS -
P. Bua;t-Merwl..d 455
1. Introduction 455
2. Geochemistry of Marine Aerosols 455
2.1 Introduction 455
2.2 Rationale 456
2.3 The data bank 458
2.4 Basic criteria for source identification 458
2.5 General considerations of the composition
of crustal and oceanic source aerosols 460
x CONTENTS
2.6 Two examples of source differentation
for marine aerosols 463
2.7 Tracers and source markers 466
2.8 Interaction between trace ?ases and
particles in the marine atmosphere 476
2.9 Conclusions 478
3. Geochemistry of Particle Transfer Between the
Atmosphere and the Oceans 479
3.1 Introduction 479
3.2 Bubbles and the chemical composition of
sea-source aerosols 479
3.3 Enrichment processes at the air-sea and
bubble-seawater interfaces 484
3.4 The fate of reactive elements entering the
ocean 491
4. Assessment of Particulate Fluxes from and to the
Air-Sea Interface : Geochemical Implications 496
4.1 Introduction 496
4.2 Basis for the calculation of atmospheric
particulate fluxes 496
4.3 General considerations of the role of air-
sea particulate exchange in geochemical
cycling 503
4.4 A case example: The air-sea exchange of
trace metals 507
5. Conclusions 520
APPENDIX A - List of Symbols 533
APPENDIX B - Annotated Bibliography of Sampling 543
SUBJECT INDEX 551
