Table Of ContentAI and Human Thought
and Emotion
AI and Human Thought
and Emotion
Sam Freed
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Freed, Sam (Philosophy professor), author.
Title: AI and human thought and emotion / Sam Freed.
Other titles: Artificial intelligence and human thought and emotion
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references. | Summary: “This reference work examines how human
thought processes and emotion can be captured by artificial
intelligence (AI) algorithms and code. It provides a theoretical
framework and demonstrates how code can be generate on the basis of the
framework”—Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019021293 | ISBN 9780367029296 (hardback ; acid-free paper) |
ISBN 9780429001123 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Artificial intelligence—Psychological aspects. | Affect (Psychology)—
Computer simulation. | Thought and thinking.
Classification: LCC Q334.7 .F74 2019 | DDC 153.4/2028563—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019021293
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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Contents
Author ...............................................................................................................xiii
0 Introduction ...........................................................................................1
0.1 Frustrations and Opportunities in AI Research .................................1
0.2 Central Questions .............................................................................4
0.3 Structure of This Volume ...................................................................5
0.4 How to Read This Book ....................................................................6
PART I INTELLIGENCE IN COMPUTERS,
HUMANS AND SOCIETIES
1 Artificial Intelligence as It Stands ........................................................11
1.1 About AI .........................................................................................11
1.1.1 AI’s Relation to Psychology, Cognitive Science, etc. ............11
1.1.2 What Are Intelligence, Consciousness, and
Introspection ..............................................................13
1.1.3 Defining and Viewing AI ....................................................14
1.2 First Approach: Logic and Mathematics ..........................................15
1.3 Second Approach: Biological Inspiration .........................................16
1.4 A Half-Approach, and a Point or Two .............................................17
1.5 Watson ............................................................................................18
1.5.1 Explicit Motivations ............................................................19
1.5.2 Arguments against Introspection ........................................19
1.5.3 Interesting Points ................................................................20
1.5.4 Watson – Summary ............................................................22
1.6 Simon .............................................................................................22
1.6.1 Economics ..........................................................................23
1.6.2 Hostile to Subjectivity – Rationalistic .................................23
1.6.3 Artificial Intelligence ..........................................................24
1.6.4 Against His Critics ..............................................................25
1.6.5 Flirting with Subjectivity ....................................................25
1.7 A I as It Stands – Summary ..............................................................25
v
vi ◾ Contents
2 Current Critiques of Artificial Intelligence ..........................................27
2.1 Background: Phenomenology and Heidegger ..................................28
2.1.1 Phenomenology...................................................................28
2.1.2 Heidegger ............................................................................28
2.2 The Cognition vs Phenomenology Debate .......................................30
2.3 D reyfus ..........................................................................................34
2.3.1 Part I – Ten Years of Research in Artificial Intelligence
(1957–1967) .......................................................................34
2.3.2 Part II – Assumptions Underlying Persistent Optimism......35
2.3.3 Part III – Alternatives to the Traditional Assumptions ........36
2.3.4 Dreyfus’s Updated Position .................................................38
2.4 Winograd and Flores .......................................................................39
2.4.1 Cognition as a Biological Phenomenon ..............................40
2.4.2 Understanding and Being ..................................................40
2.4.3 Language as Listening and Commitment ..........................42
2.5 Hermeneutics and Gadamer ...........................................................42
2.5.1 Hermeneutics .....................................................................42
2.5.2 The Hermeneutics of Heidegger and Gadamer....................43
2.6 A I’s Inadequate Response to Dreyfus and Other Critiques ..............45
2.7 Locating This Project amongst Existing Thinkers ...........................46
2.8 Current Critiques of AI: Summary .................................................46
3 Human Thinking: Anxiety and Pretence .............................................49
3.1 Individual Thinking ........................................................................50
3.1.1 Our Thinking Processes Are Embarrassing .........................50
3.1.2 Anxiety, Pretence, Stories, and Comfort .............................51
3.1.3 Can We Even Tell the Truth? ..............................................52
3.1.4 Motivations .........................................................................53
3.2 S ociety’s Thinking ...........................................................................54
3.2.1 Politics ................................................................................54
3.2.2 Social Perceptions of Science ...............................................55
3.2.3 Interrelation of Politics and Science ....................................56
3.2.4 Distinct Disciplines and Education .....................................56
3.2.5 Education as Indoctrination ................................................57
3.3 Adapting to Social Norms ...............................................................58
3.3.1 Social Pressure – the Game of Life ......................................58
3.3.2 Conforming ........................................................................59
3.3.3 Escape to a Role, Arrogance ................................................59
3.3.4 Needs Must .........................................................................60
3.4 Relevance to AI ...............................................................................60
3.4.1 Anxiety and Pretence Are Immediately Relevant
to Thinking .........................................................................60
Contents ◾ vii
3.4.2 Implications for AI, a Rudimentary Human-Like Mind .....61
3.4.3 Meaning-for-Me vs Big Data ...............................................61
3.4.4 Relevance to AI – the Future ..............................................62
3.5 Human Thinking: Anxiety and Pretence: Summary .......................62
4 Prevailing Prejudices Pertaining to Artificial Intelligence ..................65
4.1 A History of an Idea: Positivism .....................................................66
4.2 Knowledge .......................................................................................68
4.2.1 Truth Exists, Is Knowable, and Can Be Expressed in
Language ............................................................................69
4.2.2 There Is Only One Truth System ........................................69
4.2.3 Kinds of Illumination .........................................................70
4.2.4 Polarisation of Knowledge and Doubt ................................71
4.3 Science .............................................................................................71
4.3.1 The Scientific Clean Sweep .................................................71
4.3.2 Science Is Distinct from Magic or Religion .........................72
4.3.3 The World Is Modular, Logical Atomism,
Determinism .............................................................74
4.4 “Wooly” vs “Rigorous” Thinking .....................................................74
4.4.1 Secularisation ......................................................................74
4.4.2 Philosophy Is Seen as Bad ...................................................75
4.4.3 Especially, Continental Philosophy Is Seen Negatively ........75
4.5 H umans and Minds .......................................................................77
4.5.1 The Human Mind Is a Natural Kind .................................77
4.5.2 Humans Are Like Computers ............................................77
4.5.3 Lower and Higher Human Functions .................................78
4.5.4 Humans Are Rational .........................................................78
4.6 O ther Worries about Religions ........................................................80
4.6.1 Genesis ................................................................................80
4.6.2 Heresies ...............................................................................81
4.7 P rejudices Pertaining to AI: Summary.............................................82
PART II AN ALTERNATIVE: AI, SUBJECTIVITY,
AND INTROSPECTION
5 Central Argument Outline ...................................................................85
5.1 Context for Central Argument ........................................................86
5.1.1 Science vs Technology and Human-Like vs Rational ..........86
5.1.2 Philosophy of AI .................................................................87
5.1.3 Philosophy of Technology ...................................................88
5.2 N otions of Truth ............................................................................90
5.2.1 The Idea of a Single Truth ..................................................90
viii ◾ Contents
5.2.2 Perspectivism .....................................................................90
5.2.3 Perspectives, Realities, Agendas, Occam .............................92
5.2.4 In What Sense Is This Book True? ......................................93
5.2.5 Notions of Truth: Summary ...............................................93
5.3 O utline of “Is Recommended for Developing” ................................94
5.3.1 “Recommended” .................................................................94
5.3.2 “For” ...................................................................................95
5.3.3 “Developing” ......................................................................95
5.4 Central Argument Outline – Summary ...........................................97
6 Main Term: “Anthropic AI” .................................................................99
6.1 Human vs Ideal/Rational ................................................................99
6.2 M otivations for Human-Like AI....................................................100
6.2.1 Rational AI’s Interaction Is “Clunky” ...............................100
6.2.2 The Versatility of Human Intelligence ..............................101
6.2.3 Getting along with People .................................................102
6.3 C haracteristics of Human-Like AI.................................................103
6.4 H uman-Like vs Anthropic .............................................................104
6.5 Perspectives and Levels in Human Modelling ...............................105
6.5.1 Are There Really Levels or Layers in the Mind/Brain? ......105
6.5.2 Multiple Levels of Discussion ............................................106
6.5.3 The Cognitive Level Is Problematic ...................................109
6.5.4 Simultaneous Multiple Levels in Computers .....................110
6.6 Anthropic AI so far ........................................................................110
6.7 Knowing That vs Knowing How, and a Hint on Data Structure ...112
6.8 Metaphysical Non-problems ..........................................................114
6.9 Ethics ............................................................................................115
6.10 Anthropic AI: Summary ................................................................116
7 Main Term: “Introspection”...............................................................117
7.1 Studying Subjectivity .....................................................................117
7.1.1 Why Subjectivity? .............................................................118
7.1.2 Locating Subjectivity ........................................................118
7.1.3 What Is Subjectivity ..........................................................119
7.1.4 Subjectivity Can Be Studied .............................................120
7.1.5 Phenomenology, Hetero-Phenomenology ..........................121
7.2 Defining Introspection ..................................................................122
7.3 A Boundary between Introspection and Science Collapses ............123
7.3.1 “Thinking Aloud” (TA) Can Be Seen as Introspective ......124
7.3.2 Two Distinctions between TA and Introspection ..............125
7.3.3 Inferences and Confusion .................................................127
7.3.4 Non-inferential Observation Is Impossible ........................128
7.3.5 A Boundary between Introspection and Science
Collapses: Conclusion .......................................................129
Contents ◾ ix
7.4 What Kind of Introspection Is Recommended ..............................130
7.5 Main Term: “Introspection”: Summary .........................................131
8 Introspection Is Legitimate ................................................................133
8.1 Introspection as “Impossible” ........................................................134
8.2 I ntrospection as “Forbidden” .........................................................135
8.2.1 Watson ..............................................................................135
8.2.2 Cognitive Psychology’s Attitude to Introspection ..............136
8.2.3 Other Objections ..............................................................138
8.2.4 Contexts of Discovery and Justification ............................138
8.2.5 Truth in Science vs Technology ........................................139
8.2.6 Example and Summary of “Introspection Is
Forbidden” ..................................................................141
8.3 Introspection as “Commonplace” ..................................................142
8.3.1 Sweeping Testimony .........................................................142
8.3.2 Specific Apparent Cases ....................................................144
8.3.3 Mainstream Cognitive Science Uses Introspection............146
8.3.4 Introspection Is “Commonplace”: Summary .....................147
8.4 I ntrospection as “Desirable” ..........................................................148
8.4.1 Introspection and Phenomenology ....................................148
8.4.2 The Neisser–Dreyfus Debate ............................................149
8.4.3 Introspection vs Phenomenology .......................................149
8.5 I ntrospection as “Unavoidable”......................................................150
8.6 A Hybrid Position ..........................................................................150
8.7 T ypes of Truth in Introspection .....................................................152
8.8 Introspection Is Legitimate: Summary ..........................................155
9 Introspection Is Likely to Be Profitable .............................................157
9.1 Conceptual Arguments ..................................................................158
9.2 An Argument from Education .......................................................158
9.2.1 Skill Questions ..................................................................159
9.2.2 Teaching Skills ..................................................................160
9.2.3 Self-Observations ..............................................................161
9.2.4 Mental Self-Observation Is Introspection .........................162
9.2.5 Examples of Mental Skills Being Transmitted by
Introspection .....................................................................163
9.2.6 Skills Only Part-Acquired by Explicit Instruction .............165
9.2.7 An Argument from Education: Summary .........................165
9.3 P rogramming Impossible without Introspection ............................166
9.3.1 Role-Playing ......................................................................166
9.3.2 Programming Is Introspective ...........................................168
9.3.3 If So, What Is the Point of This Book? ..............................168
9.4 Introspection Is Likely to Be Profitable: Summary ........................169
