Agni, the Vedic ritual of the fire altar

426 Pages·1983·29.092 MB·English

by  Frits Staal, with the assistance of Pamela MacFarland.

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AGNI
THE VEDIC RITUAL OF THE FIRE ALTAR
II
Volume
Edited by Frits Staal
with the assistance of
Pamela MacFarland
ASIAN HUMANITIES PRESS
BERKELEY
1983
Avd. for indologi iranistik
och indoeur. sprakforskning
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or
otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise, circulated, without the
publisher’s prior consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which
it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being CONTENTS
imposed on a subsequent purchaser.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
Preface xi
recording or any information storage and retrieval system without permission in
writing from the Publisher. Abbreviations xvi
Copyright © 1983 by Frits Staal
Manufactured in the Republic of Korea PART III
by Samhwa Printing Co., Ltd.
PERSPECTIVES
The Archeological Background to the Agnicayana Ritual,
by Romila Thapar 3
r
The Pre-Vedic Indian Background of the Srauta Ritual,
by Asko Parpola 41
Other Folk’s Fire, by J. C. Heesterman 76
The Geometry of the Vedic Rituals, by A. Seidenberg 95
Ritual Structure, by Frits Staal 127
The Agnicayana Section of the Maitrayani-Samhita with
Special Reference to the Manava Srautasutra, by N. Tsuji 135
The Atiratra According to the Kausitaki Brahmana,
by E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma 161
Ritual Preparation of the Mahavira and Ukha Pots, by
Yasukelkari 168
Agnicayana in the Mimamsa, by K. Balasubrahmanya
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Sastri, edited by James A. Santucci 178
Staal, Frits.
Srauta Traditions in Recent Times, by C. G. Kashikar and Asko
Agni, the Vedic ritual of the fire altar.
Parpola 199
Bibliography: p. 703
Recent Nambudiri Performances of Agnistoma and Agnicayana,
Includes indexes.
1. Agnicayana ( Vedic rite) I. Somayajipad, by C. V. Somayajipad, M. Itti Ravi Nambudiri, and
C. V. (Cherumukku Vaidikan) II. Itti Ravi Erkkara Raman Nambudiri 252
Nambudiri, M. III. De Menil, Adelaide. IV. Title.
BL1226.82.A33S7 294.5'38 81-13637 A History of the Nambudiri Community of Kerala, by M. G. S.
ISBN 0-89581-450-1 (set) AACR2
Narayanan and Kesavan Veluthat 256
v
PART V
The Nambudiri Ritual Tradition with Special Reference to the
Kollengode Archives, by M. R. Raghava Varier 279
FILMS, TAPES, AND CASSETTES
Sanskrit and Malayalam References from Kerala, by K.
by Frits Staal
Kunjunni Raja 300
The Music of Nambudiri Unexpressed Chant (aniruktagana), by
W ayne Howard 311
I. The Films 739
The Five-Tipped Bird, the Square Bird, and the Many-Faced
II. The Tapes 744
Domestic Altar, by C. V. Somayajipad, M. Itti Ravi
III. The Cassettes 748
Nambudiri, and Frits Staal 343
Contributors 761
Vedic Madras, by Frits Staal 359
Glossary and Index of Terms 769
Notes on Comparison of Vedic Mudras with Madras used in
Kutiyattam and Kathakali, by Clifford R. Jones 380 Index of Names 800
Agni Offerings in Java and Bali, by C. Hooykaas 382 Index of Texts 812
Tibetan Homa Rites, by Tadeusz Skorupski 403
Homa in East Asia, by Michel Strickmann 418
The Agnicayana Project, by Frits Staal 456
PART IV
TEXTS AND TRANSLATIONS
r
Baudhayana Srautasutra on the Agnicayana, text by W.
Caland, translation by Yasuke Ikari and Harold Arnold 478
Kausitaki Brahmana on the Atiratra, translation by E. R.
Sreekrishna Sarma 676
Jaiminiya Srautasutra on the Agnicayana, with Bhavatrata’s
Commentary, by Asko Parpola 700
vi Vll
PLATES
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
All photographs are by Adelaide deMenil unless otherwise noted.
iA-D Vessel Excavated at the Site of Itgi and Identified
Fig. 1. Construction of a Right Angle 96
as Ukha (Department of History and Archaeology,
Fig. 2. The Basic Bird Altar 97
Karnatak University) 24
Fig. 3. Variant of the Basic Bird Altar 97
2 The Mount at Kausambi Showing the Defence Structures
Fig. 4. “The Cord Stretched in the Diagonal ...” 98
(Photo Professor G. R. Sharma) 28
Fig. 5. Squaring the Oblong 99
3A Part of the “Syenaciti” (Professor G. R. Sharma) 30
Fig. 6. Constructions of the Mahavedi 107
3B Section Across the “Syenaciti” (Professor G. R. Sharma) 30
Fig. 7. Construction of a Triangle of Area 7 1/2 Square Purusas 109
4A Another View of the “Syenaciti” (Professor G. R. Sharma) 32
Fig. 8. Troughs According to Baudhayana and Apastamba 110
4B Another Section Across the “Syenaciti” {Professor G.
Fig. 9. Circulature of the Square 111
R. Sharma) 32
Fig. 10. The Gnomon 112
5A-B The Tortorise-shaped and Square Tanks at
Fig. 11. The Garhapatya and New Garhapatya 116
Nagarjunakonda {Archaeological Survey of India) 36
Fig. 12, Subtracting a Square from a Square 117
6 Altar Excavated at Jagatgram {Archaeological Survey
Fig. 13. The “Figure of the Cord” 118
of India) 38
Fig. 14. Construction of a Square of Area n 121
7A Bull and Priestess from Chanhu-Daro {From E. J. H.
Fig. 15. Shapes of Bricks of the Five-Tipped Bird 344
Mackay, Chanhu-Daro Excavations 1935-36, New Haven,
Conn., 1943, Plate 51, no. 13) 58 Fig. 16. First Layer of the Five-Tipped Bird 346
Fig. 17. Second Layer of the Five-Tipped Bird 347
7B Priest Kneeling before Human Head {From E. J. H.
Fig. 18. Third Layer of the Five-Tipped Bird 348
Mackay, Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro, II, Delhi
1938, Plate 99A) 58 Fig. 19. Fourth Layer of the Five-Tipped Bird 349
Fig. 20. Fifth Layer of the Five-Tipped Bird 350
8 Yama: One of the Drag gsed or Eight Fearful Ones
{2' 10 112" X P 11" painted scroll, E. M. Scratton Fig. 21. Shapes of Bricks of the Square Bird 351
Fig. 22. First Layer of the Square Bird 353
Collection, Tibetan Slide No. 4, Ashmolean Museum) 60
Fig. 23. Second Layer of the Square Bird 354
9A-F Rgveda Mudras I 366
Fig. 24. Third Layer of the Square Bird 355
10A-F Rgveda Mudras II 368
Fig. 25. Fourth Layer of the Square Bird 356
11A-F Rgveda Mudras III 370
Fig. 26. Fifth Layer of the Square Bird 357
12A-F Samaveda Mudras I {Krishnan Nair Studio, Shoranur) 376
Fig. 27. The Bricks of the Many-Faced Domestic Altar 358
13A-F Samaveda Mudras II {Krishnan Nair Studio, Shoranur) 378
Fig. 28. Homa Hearth for Pacifying Rite 407
14 The Blue Fudo (Acala-vidyaraja) {Shoren-in, Kyoto) 430
15 Inner Homa {Photo Kuo Li-ying) 440 Fig. 29. Homa Hearth for the Rite for Gaining Prosperity 410
Fig. 30. Homa Hearth for the Rite for Subjugation 411
16A Reading Out and Burning the Inscribed Tablets {Kuo Li-ying) 448
Fig. 31. Homa Hearth for the Rite for Destroying 412
16B Homa to Dakin! in Fox-Spirit Form {Kuo Li-ying) 448
17 Yamabushi Perform the Saito Goma {Kuo Li-ying) 450 Fig. 32. Placement of Microphones for the Sound Recordings 745
18A-B Nambudiri Visitors 460
19 Helper Dissuading Policeman 466
20 Visitors North of the Sacred Enclosure 470
21 Crowds during the Final Days 472
22 Nambudiri Cameraman After Flow of Wealth 740
23 The Nagra Tape Recorders 746
vm
IX
PREFACE
MAPS
Map A. Harappan and Vedic Sites and Excavations xviii The 1975 performance of the Atiratra-Agnicayana called attention to a
ritual created in India almost three thousand years ago. The first volume of
Maps B. 1-4 §rauta Traditions
Agni sought to document and help preserve this ancient tradition. The
1. India 193
2. Maharasthra and Karnatak 194 ceremonies were described and depicted in explicit detail because of their
3- Andhra 195 intrinsic cultural value, because they provide the source material for many
3A. Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur 196 developments in Indian religion, and also because they can be used to con¬
Kerala and Tamil Nadu 197 firm, revise, or reject general theories of ritual and religion.
4-
4A. Central Kerala 198 This second volume of Agni probes more deeply into the authenticity
4B. Thanjavur and Tirucchirappalli 198 of the Nambudiri Vedic tradition and seeks at the same time to explain
how such a survival could occur. It shows that much is in fact known about
the background, context, and history of the tradition, though some of this
information is circumstantial and much of it is difficult of access. As a result
EXHIBIT
of these investigations, the history of the religions of India now appears in
a new light: though Vedic beliefs and doctrines have disappeared or been
transformed, Vedic practice has in fact continued. This is significant especial¬
Two Methods for Folding Banana Leaf Inside Back Cover
ly in India, where practice—karman—has always been more important than
theory. The truth has escaped Indologists who confine themselves to texts
and doctrines, and anthropologists who merely scratch the surface. It has
been further obscured by the popularization of artificial distinctions like that
between so-called Great and Little Traditions.
The second volume begins with Part III, “Perspectives,” a series of con¬
tributions by scholars who elucidate the ritual, its background, and its many
dimensions. Part IV, “Texts and Translations,” provides sections from ritual
manuals of the three Vedic schools represented in the 1975 performance. Part
V is concerned with the audiovisual documentation of the Agni ceremony.
Part III opens with historical studies by Thapar, Parpola, Heesterman,
and Seidenberg. The perspectives adopted in these speculations are diverse;
together they remind us of important gaps in our knowledge of early Indian
history, and they show us that our widely held assumptions about an Aryan
invasion are not only simplistic but also questionable. Staal then analyzes
the syntax of the ritual. There follow philological articles primarily con¬
cerned with Sanskrit texts: Tsuji examines a Yajurvedic tradition that differs
from that followed in 1975; Sreekrishna Sarma studies the Rgvedic sources
underlying the 1975 performance; and Ikari explores a historical link be¬
tween the Agnicayana and the Pravargya ceremony. Balasubrahmanya Sastri
illustrates how the Agnicayana has been treated in a later philosophic de¬
velopment.
Although the continued existence of grhya rites among the twice-born
castes is well known, the survey by Kashikar and Parpola shows how Vedic
&rauta traditions, too, are alive in many regions of the Indian subcontinent,
the subsequent eight papers focus on the Nambudiri tradition and elucidate
xi
x
PREFACE
PREFACE
features of Nambudiri Vedic culture. The picture that emerges modifies the
of the contributions has been largely retained, a certain amount of standardi¬
common view that Vedic civilization disappeared and was in due course
zation has been done, and overlaps have been minimized. Since English is
leplaced by Hinduism. What we witness is in fact the continued existence of
not the native tongue of most of the authors, nor of the editor, considerations
Vedic traditions, though often in remote areas. At the same time, many
of style have required much attention. In all these tasks I have been fortunate
Indian traditions entered a new phase, which it is customary to call Tantric.
in having the assistance of my judicious coeditor, Pamela MacFarland. As
This development can be traced in Kerala and among the Nambudiris, but
in the case of the first volume, most of the papers have been typed by Ruth
its chief impact has been elsewhere. It is not within the scope of this book
Suzuki with her customary, yet miraculous, speed. The burden of completing
to treat the Tantric fire rites that have proliferated all over India during
a variety of smaller tasks was much eased by support from the Department
the last two thousand years. However, contributions by Hooykaas, Skorup-
of South and Southeast Asian Studies and the Committee on Research of
ski, and Strickmann show the extent to which such ceremonies spread over
the University of California at Berkeley.
large parts of Asia. After depicting a culmination of these Tantric rites in
The plates for this volume come from a greater variety of sources
the fiery meditations of Japan, Part III ends with an account of mundane
than was the case in the first volume. Acknowledgments are due to the De¬
events and practical affairs that pervaded and accompanied the Agnicayana
partment of History and Archaeology, Karnatak University (for Plate 1);
project.
Professor G. R. Sharma (Plates 2-4); the Archaeological Survey of India
The texts and translations of Part IV appropriately begin with sections
(Plates 5-6); E. J. H. Mackay, Chanhu-Daro Excavations 1935-36 (Plate
from the Baudhayana Srautasutra, which is the most detailed and precise
7A); E. J. H. Mackay, Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro (Plate 7B);
of the sutras, and probably the earliest. The material presented by Ikari and
The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (Plate 8); Krishnan Nair Studies, Shora-
Arnold is the counterpart of the description in Part II, and makes possible
nur (Plates 12-13); Shoren-in, Kyoto (Plate 14); Kuo Li-ying (Plates 15-17);
a step-for-step comparison of the ritual as it was before 600 b.c. with the 1975 and Adelaide de Menil (Plates 9-11, 18-23). The illustrations in the text
performance. The contributions that follow supplement the Yajurvedic data
and the numerous maps have again been drawn by Adrienne Morgan with
with the Atiratra recitations from the Rgveda and the Agnicayana chants
meticulous care. Dr. W. M. Callewaert of the Department of Oriental
from the Samaveda.
Studies, Leuven, Belgium, has assisted with the map of Andhra Pradesh.
The contents of the two volumes reflects a variety of disciplines. The
Figures 28-31 are reproduced from The Creation of Mandalas: Rong tha
emphasis in Part II may be characterized as anthropological or ethnogra¬
bio bzang dam chos rgya mtsho, Volume 3.
phical, it represents Vedic fieldwork. Such fieldwork can be undertaken only
The materials presented in this second volume range far in time and
by Sanskritists, but all too few have availed themselves of the opportunity.
space. Though all are reverberations of Agni and add dimensions to the
By contrast, the information provided in Parts III and IV is largely historical
Nambudiri Agni, do they place the Nambudiri tradition itself in a new per¬
and philological. Though these contrasting approaches may seem incompa¬
spective, and do they teach us anything else that is new?
tible, they are coherent from the Nambudiri, or indeed from the Indian,
It would be tempting to claim that this extremely ancient tradition ad¬
point of view. It is not surprising, therefore, that the descriptions offered in
mirably fills the gap between the great literary traditions of mankind and
Parts II and IV are often extremely similar in spite of their different orien¬
many surviving traditions in preliterate societies that are now beginning to
tation. Both descriptions differ in points of detail, but they exhibit the same
be studied. Attractive as this speculation is, I shall descend to a less lofty level
structure and spirit. If the Nambudiris conceive of the ritual in the manner
of conjecture that is still replete with general questions. For example, how
of the authors of the ancient manuals, it is not because they imitate the
different is the Vedic religion of the Nambudiris from the original Vedic
manuals; it is because they embody the same tradition.
religion? How do Vedic and Hindu elements blend, mingle, or coexist in the
Part V of the second volume gives brief surveys of the twenty hours of
Nambudiri tradition? And what light does this throw on the concepts of
film footage and the eighty hours of recordings with which we returned
tradition and religion?
from India. The forty-five-minute film Altar of Fire, edited from these materi¬
When answering the first question, one might begin with the stark
als, presents primarily the Nambudiri point of view: it consists of a succes¬
contrast that becomes immediately apparent from a comparison of the
sion of episodes suggested by Cherumukku Vaidikan. The contents of the
section on Vedic nomads with that on the Nambudiri tradition in the first
cassette tapes that accompany this book are described in the third section of
volume. While the Vedic nomads were aliens migrating into a new
Part V.
country where they came in contact with the remnants of an unfamiliar
Collecting contributions from an international group of scholars has
civilization, the Nambudiris are settled villagers and established country
been challenging, time-consuming, and rewarding. Though the original style
gentlemen occupying the highest ranks in their caste society. The Vedic
Xll
Xlll
PREFACE
PREFACE
religion, however, has remained the same in at least one respect. Agni is the
example, is not a sacred book: its power lies in mantra, and mantra is vidhi,
same fire reinforced by mantras and oblations whose name continues to be
that is, an injunction to karman: “Speaking, it is of karman that they speak;
familiar from chants and recitations. Agni is not a deity like Siva, Visnu, or
and praising, it is karman that they praise” (Brhad-Aranyaka-Upanisad
Bhagavatl, whose images are installed in temples. The Vedic religion of Agni
3.2.13).
and Soma is as nonanthropomorphic in the Nambudiri tradition as it was
The structures of these Asian traditions are related and unrelated to
during the Vedic period. One reason for Agni’s continuing identity is this
Western patterns of religion, culture, thought, and society in a myriad ways.
nonanthropomorphism, which makes it possible for him or it to be carried
The term religion, however, has been applied in a clear and helpful manner
in an earthen pot. It is in the nature of things that men and anthropomorphic
only to Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. It is of limited applicability to
deities are more readily susceptible to change than such nonanthropomor¬
Buddhism and to the bhakti cults of Saivism and Visnuism. Elsewhere it leads
phic substances as Agni.
to a meaningless proliferation of problems. In the only intelligible sense of
How then are Vedic and Hindu elements related in the Nambudiri tra¬
the term, there are no indigenous religions in India.
dition? What students of religion in the West yearn for, of course, is Integra¬
tion. When we ask the performers ‘“Are you Vedic Indians or Hindus?”
the answer is “We are Vaidika Nambudiris.” From this we might conclude San Francisco Frits Staal
that things that seem to be incompatible to us are harmoniously One in the
mysterious orient. But let us not get entangled too soon in our own confu¬
sions. To understand the Nambudiri answer adequately we have to move
to a more sophisticated level of conceptual analysis. To begin with, we have
to question those rubrics of religion we have come to use with such facile
abandon. The labeling of elements as “Vedic” or “Hindu” may reflect a his¬
torical perspective, but it throws scant light on the synchronic relations be¬
tween these elements, and has nothing to do with religion. The same holds
for the Harappan and Indo-European features of the Agnicayana itself,
where such labeling is even more obviously historical. All such labels are
imposed by scholars, laymen, and other outsiders. Their value lies in his¬
torical and comparative analysis; but we use them at our peril when we
forget that they are inherently artificial.
The concept of religion is a Western concept, and though its origin is
Roman, it has been colored by its age-long associations with the monothe¬
isms of the West. Western religion is pervaded by the notion of exclusive
truth, and it claims a monopoly on truth. It is professed by “People of the
Book,” in the apt phrase the Koran uses to refer to Jews, Christians, and
Muslims. Scholars and laymen persist in searching for such religions in Asia.
In order to identify them, they seize upon labels from indigenous categories^
rent from their original contexts. Thus there arises a host of religions: Vedic,’
Brahmanical, Hindu, Buddhist, Bonpo, Tantric, Taoist, Confucian, Shinto,
etc. In India, and in Asia generally, such groupings are not only uninterest¬
ing but uninformative and tinged with the unreal. What counts instead are
ancestors and teachers—hence lineages, traditions, affiliations, cults, eligi¬
bility, initiation, and injunction—concepts with ritual rather than ’truth-
functional overtones. These notions do not pertain to questions of truth, but
to practical questions: What should the followers of a tradition do? This is
precisely what makes such notions pertain to the domain of karman. Hence
orthopraxy, not orthodoxy, is the operative concept in India. The Veda, for
xiv
xv
ABBREVIATIONS
SV Samaveda Samhita
SB Satapatha Brahmana
AA Aitareya Aranyaka
SGS Sanlchayana Grhya Sutra
AB Aitareya Brahmana
sss Sanlchayana Srauta Sutra
AG (Jaiminlya) Aranyageyagana
TA Taittiriya Aranyaka
ApGS Apastamba Grhya Sutra
TB Taittiriya Brahmana
ApSS Apastamba Srauta Sutra
TS Taittiriya Samhita
ApSulvaS Apastamba Sulva Sutra
TU Taittiriya Upanisad
AGS Asvalayana Grhya Sutra
VaikhSS Vaikhanasa Srauta Sutra
ASS Asvalayana Srauta Sutra r
VaitSS Vaitana Srauta Sutra
AV Atharvaveda Samhita
VarSS Varaha Srauta Sutra
BAU Brhad Aranyaka Upanisad
VS (K/M) Vajasaneyi Samhita (Kanva/Madhyandina)
BGS Baudhayana Grhya Sutra
VSS Vadhula Srauta Sutra
r
BharSS Bharadvaja Srauta Sutra
BSS Baudhayana Srauta Sutra
BSulvaS Baudhayana Sulva Sutra
cu
Chandogya Upanisad
GG (Jaiminlya) Gramageyagana
GobhGS Gobhila Grhya Sutra
HirGS Hiranyakesi Grhya Sutra
HirSS Hiranyakesi Srauta Sutra
JA Jaiminlya Arcika
JB Jaiminlya Brahmana
r
JSS Jaiminlya Srauta Sutra
KapS Kapisthala Samhita
KSS ICatyayana Srauta Sutra
KSulvaS Katyayana Sulva Sutra
KB Kausltaki Brahmana
KhadGS Khadira Grhya Sutra
KS Kathaka Samhita
KU Kena Upanisad
LSS Latyayana Srauta Sutra
ManSS Manava Srauta Sutra
MS MaitrayanI Samhita
MU Maitrayanlya Upanisad
ParGS Paraskara Grhya Sutra
PB Pancavimsa Brahmana
RV
Rgveda Samhita
xvi
XVII
PART III
PERSPECTIVES