Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects

694 Pages·2004·18.899 MB·English

by  Lev S. Ruzer, Naomi H. Harley

Aerosols
Handbook
Measurement,
Dosimetry, and
Health Effects
© 2005 by CRC Press
Aerosols
Handbook
Measurement,
Dosimetry, and
Health Effects
Edited by
Lev S. Ruzer and Naomi H. Harley
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
© 2005 by CRC Press
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Aerosols handbook: measurement, dosimetry, and health effects / edited by Lev S. Ruzer and
Naomi H. Harley.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56670-611-4 (alk. paper)
1. Aerosols—Toxicology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Ruzer, Lev S. (Lev Solomonovich)
II. Harley, Naomi H.
RA1270.A34A374A2004
614.5’92—dc22
2004050336
CIP
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© 2005 by CRC Press
Preface
Aerosols consist of particles in the very broad range of sizes from nanometers to hundreds
of micrometers (4 to 5 orders of magnitude). Therefore, their behavior is complicated in
the atmosphere, indoors, and especially in the lung.
Health effects associated with aerosols depend on the physical parameter that we call
"dose." Dose depends on the quantity of aerosols in target cells. With the exception of some
radioactive aerosols, it is practically impossible to measure dose directly. In practice,
assessment of the dose is provided by measuring air concentration and calculating some
known parameters.
According to the U.S. EPA, "in epidemiological studies, an index of exposure from
personal or stationary monitors of selected pollutants is analyzed for associations with
health outcomes, such as morbidity or mortality. However, it is a basic tenet of toxicology
that the dose delivered to the target site, not the external exposure, is a proximal cause of
a response. Therefore, there is increased emphasis on understanding the
exposure–dose–response relationship. Exposure is what gets measured in the typical
study and what gets regulated; dose is the causative factor."
In this book, we present a general, up-to-date overview of all aspects of aerosols, from
their properties to the health outcomes. First, current issues related to aerosol measure-
ment are detailed: standardization of measurements for different types of aerosols (indoor,
medical and pharmaceutical, industrial, bioactive, and radioactive), with a special empha-
sis on breathing zone measurements. The handbook also discusses the problems of aerosol
dosimetry, such as the definitions of aerosol exposure and aerosol dose, including the
issue of nanometer particles, the mechanism of aerosol deposition in the lung, and mod-
eling deposition with an emphasis on the corresponding uncertainty in risk assessment.
Aseparate part on radioactive aerosols includes aspects such as radon; natural and
artificial aerosols; radioactive aerosols and the Chernobyl accident; dosimetry and epi-
demiology in miners, including direct dose measurement in the lungs; radon and thoron;
and long-lived radionuclides in the environment.
It is especially important that the handbook includes an overview of nonradioactive
and radioactive aerosols together, because behavior of radioactive aerosols in the lungs,
including deposition and biokinetic processes, depends not on their activity, but on parti-
cle size distribution and breathing parameters. On the other hand, radioactivity of aerosols
is the most useful tool for the study of their behavior in the lungs.
The handbook concludes with overviews of different aspects related to the health
effects of diesel aerosols, health risks from ultrafine particles, and epidemiology to molec-
ular biology.
© 2005 by CRC Press
Acknowledgments
Dr. Ruzer appreciates the support of William Fisk, head of the Indoor Environment
Department (IED), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and staff scientists Richard
Sextro, Lara Gundel, Michael Apte, Phillip Price, William Nazaroff, and Anthony Nero for
their support. He would also like to acknowledge the work of the scientists and techni-
cians of the Aerosol Laboratory at the All-Russian Scientific-Technical Institute for
Physico-Technical and Radio-Technical Measurements (VNIIFTRI), Moscow, Russia.
Dr. Harley gratefully acknowledges the research support given by the U.S.
Department of Energy EMSPProgram DE FG02 03ER 63661 and the support of the staff at
the New York University School of Medicine, Department of Environmental Medicine.
The editors thank the following individuals for their technical and administrative sup-
port: Joyce Cordell-Breckingridge, Olivia Salazar, Sondra Jarvis, Jeiwon Deputy, Eve
Edelson, Julia Alter, Joanne Lambert, Marcy Beck, and Rita Labrie.
The editors also gratefully acknowledge the following individuals at CRC Press:
Randi Cohen, who played an important role in preparing this book for publication from
the beginning, and Matt Lamoreaux and Julie Spadaro, who worked hard during the final
stages of production. Thanks and appreciation also go to the production team at
Macmillan-India.
© 2005 by CRC Press
Editors
Lev S. Ruzerwas born in Odessa, Ukraine, in 1922. His mother died when he was 5 years
old. Five years later, his father was executed under Stalin's regime. After graduating from
high school, he studied physics and mathematics at Odessa University until the beginning
of World War II.
After being demobilized from the Soviet Army, he enrolled at a recently founded
Department of Nuclear Physics at Moscow University. After graduation, he could not
work as a scientist for political reasons: he had relatives in the United States and his father
had been executed. For 8 years, he worked as a teacher in Moscow schools.
After Stalin's death, he found a job as a scientist in a medical institute. The research
study included the assessment of dose to animals exposed to radon and its decay prod-
ucts. Based on this theoretical and experimental work, he defended his degree as a
Candidate of Physico-Mathematical Sciences (equivalent to a Ph.D.) in 1961. He worked
from 1961 to 1979 in the All-Union Institute of Physico-Technical and Radio-Technical
Measurements as a founder and chairman of the Aerosol Laboratory.
In 1973, the Aerosol Laboratory became the State Standard on Aerosols in the Soviet
Union. In addition to becoming the main center of aerosol measurement and metrology in
the country, the laboratory focused on development and using methods of direct dosime-
try on miners in both uranium and nonuranium mines.
In 1968, Dr. Ruzer published his book Radioactive Aerosols in Russian. In 1970, he
defended his degree of Doctor of Technical Sciences, and in 1977 he became a professor.
He also served as scientific supervisor to 8 Candidates of Science.
In 1977, he was discharged from his position for political reasons: his children were
involved in dissident activity. He spent the following 8 years without work and unable to
obtain permission to emigrate. He finally arrived in the United States in 1987. In 1989, his
second book, Aerosols R&D in the Soviet Union, was published in English.
Since 1989, he has been working as a researcher in the Indoor Environment
Department, Environmental Energy Technologies Division, at the Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory.
Dr. Ruzer has published in more than 110 publications and holds three patents.
Naomi H. Harley received an undergraduate degree (B.S.) in electrical engineering from
The Cooper Union, a masters degree (M.E.) in nuclear engineering, and a Ph.D. in radio-
logical physics from the New York University Graduate School. She obtained an APC in
management from the New York University Graduate Business School. Dr. Harley was
elected a council member to the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements (NCRP) in 1982 and was made an honorary member in 2000. She is an
advisor to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR).
Dr. Harley's major research interests are the measurement of inhaled or ingested
radionuclides, the measurement of environmental radioactivity, the modeling of their fate
within the human body, the calculation of the detailed radiation dose to cells specifically
implicated in carcinogenesis, and risk assessment from exposure to internal radioactivity.
Dr. Harley has authored over 150 journal publications, six book chapters, and has four
patents for radiation detection instrumentation. The most recent patent, issued in 2004,
was for a miniature passive radon and thoron detector.
© 2005 by CRC Press
Contributors
Michael G. Apte James W. Gentry
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Department of Chemical Engineering
Indoor Environment Department University of Maryland
Berkeley, California College Park, Maryland
Paul A. Baron Lara A. Gundel
NIOSH Indoor Environment Department
Cincinnati, Ohio Environmental Energy Technologies
Division
A.K. Budyka Lawrence Berkeley National
Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute Laboratory
Moscow, Russia Berkeley, California
Beverly S. Cohen Max M. Häggblom
Nelson Institute of Environmental Department of Biochemistry and
Medicine Microbiology
New York University Rutgers University
New York, New York New Brunswick, New Jersey
Daniel J. Cooney Naomi H. Harley
Dispersed Systems Laboratory New York University School of
University of North Carolina Medicine
Chapel Hill, North Carolina New York, New York
D.E. Fertman Maire S.A. Heikkinen
Scientific Engineering Centre Department of Environmental
SNIIP Medicine
Moscow, Russia New York University School of
Medicine
Isabel M. Fisenne New York, New York
USDHS Environmental Measurements
Laboratory Anthony J. Hickey
New York, New York Dispersed Systems Laboratory
University of North Carolina
Lucila Garcia-Contreras Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Dispersed Systems Laboratory
University of North Carolina William C. Hinds
Chapel Hill, North Carolina Department of Environmental Health
Sciences
Robert J. Garmise Center for Occupational and
Dispersed Systems Laboratory Environmental Health
University of North Carolina UCLASchool of Public Health
Chapel Hill, North Carolina Los Angeles, California
© 2005 by CRC Press
Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski Mark L. Maiello
Environmental Health Sciences Wyeth Research
School of Public Health R&D Environmental Health and Safety
University of California Pearl River, New York
Berkeley, California
Ted B. Martonen
Philip K. Hopke U.S. EPA
Department of Chemical Engineering National Health and Environmental
Clarkson University Effects Laboratory
Potsdam, New York Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
and
J.P. Johnson Department of Medicine
Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Pulmonary Diseases
University of Minnesota University of North Carolina
Minneapolis, Minnesota Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Latarsha D. Jones Andrew D. Maynard
Transave, Inc. National Institute for Occupational Safety
Monmouth Junction, New Jersey and Health
Robert A. Taft Laboratory
Kristin King Isaacs Cincinnati, Ohio
National Health and Environmental
Effects Research Laboratory B.I. Ogorodnikov
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Moscow, Russia
David B. Kittelson I.V. Pavlov
Department of Mechanical Engineering VNIPI PT
University of Minnesota Moscow, Russia
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Phillip N. Price
V.L. Kustova Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute Indoor Environment Department
of Physico-Technical and Berkeley, California
Radio-Technical Measurements
VNIIFTRI A.I. Rizin
Moscow, Russia Scientific Engineering Centre
SNIIP
Yu.V. Kuznetzov Moscow, Russia
All-Russian Scientific Research Institute
of Physico-Technical and Charles E. Rodes
Radio-Technical Measurements Center for Aerosol Technology
VNIIFTRI RTI International
Moscow, Russia Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Janet M. Macher Jacky A. Rosati
California Department of Health U.S. EPA
Services National Risk Management Research
Environmental Health Laboratory Branch Laboratory
Berkeley, California Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
© 2005 by CRC Press
Lev S. Ruzer Ira B. Tager
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory School of Public Health
Indoor Environment Department University of California
Berkeley, California Berkeley, California
Jonathan M. Samet Jonathan W. Thornburg
Department of Epidemiology Center for Aerosol Technology
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of RTI International
Public Health Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Baltimore, Maryland
W.F. Watts
Richard G. Sextro Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory University of Minnesota
Indoor Environment Department Minneapolis, Minnesota
Berkeley, California
Hugh Smyth
Dispersed Systems Laboratory
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
© 2005 by CRC Press
Contents
Chapter 1 Aspects of health-related aerosols
James W. Gentry
Chapter 2 Aerosol properties
William C. Hinds
Chapter 3 Advances in monitoring methods for airborne particles
Philip K. Hopke
Chapter 4 Ultrafine and nanoparticle emissions: Anew challenge for internal
combustion engine designers
D. B. Kittelson, W.F. Watts, and J.P. Johnson
Chapter 5 Breathing zone exposure assessment
Charles E. Rodes and Jonathan W. Thornburg
Chapter 6 Mechanisms of particle deposition
Kristin K. Isaacs, Jacky A. Rosati, and Ted B. Martonen
Chapter 7 Aerosol dose
Lev S. Ruzer, Michael G. Apte, and Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 8 Modeling deposition of inhaled particles
Ted B. Martonen, Jacky A. Rosati, and Kristin K. Isaacs
Chapter 9 Assessing uncertainties in the relationship between inhaled
particle concentrations, internal deposition, and health effects
Phillip N. Price
Chapter 10 Aerosol chemistry and physics: Indoor perspective
Lara A. Gundel and Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 11 Aerosols in the industrial environment
Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Baron
Chapter 12 Medical and pharmaceutical aerosols
Hugh D.C. Smyth, Lucila Garcia-Contreras, Daniel J. Cooney, Robert J.
Garmise, Latarsha D. Jones, and Anthony J. Hickey
Chapter 13 Bioaerosols
Maire S.A. Heikkinen, Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski, Max M. Häggblom, and Janet M. Macher
Chapter 14 Radioactive aerosols
Lev S. Ruzer
© 2005 by CRC Press