Aerobiology: The Toxicology of Airborne Pathogens and Toxins

516 Pages·2016·16.987 MB·English

by  Harry Salem, Harry Salem, Sidney A Katz, Diana Anderson, Tim Marrs, Terry J Henderson, Sofi Ibrahim, Arik Eisenkraft, Michael Adler, Joshua Santarpia, Sanjiv Shah, Sidney Katz, Joseph L Corriveau, Jana Kesavan, Gene E McClellan, Rudolph J Jaeger, Thomas Ingersoll

Aerobiology
The Toxicology of Airborne Pathogens and Toxins
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Issues in Toxicology
Series Editors:
Professor Diana Anderson, University of Bradford, UK
Dr Michael D. Waters, Michael Waters Consulting, N. Carolina, USA
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00 Dr Timothy C. Marrs, Edentox Associates, Kent, UK
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91 Advisor to the Board:
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73 Dr Alok Dhawan, Ahmedabad University, India
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7 Titles in the Series:
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39/ 1: Hair in Toxicology: An Important Bio-Monitor
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0.1 2: Male-mediated Developmental Toxicity
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oi: 3: Cytochrome P450: Role in the Metabolism and Toxicity of Drugs and
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or 4: Bile Acids: Toxicology and Bioactivity
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s.rs 5: The Comet Assay in Toxicology
ub 6: Silver in Healthcare
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htt 8: Environmental Cardiology
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6 o 9: Biomarkers and Human Biomonitoring, Volume 1: Ongoing Programs
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0 and Exposures
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pril 10: Biomarkers and Human Biomonitoring, Volume 2: Selected Biomarkers
A of Current Interest
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n 1 11: Hormone-Disruptive Chemical Contaminants in Food
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14: Toxicological Effects of Veterinary Medicinal Products in Humans:
Volume 1
15: Toxicological Effects of Veterinary Medicinal Products in Humans:
Volume 2
16: Aging and Vulnerability to Environmental Chemicals: Age-related
Disorders and their Origins in Environmental Exposures
17: Chemical Toxicity Prediction: Category Formation
and Read-Across
18: The Carcinogenicity of Metals: Human risk through occupational and
environmental exposure
19: Reducing, Refining and Replacing the Use of Animals in
Toxicity Testing
20: Advances in Dermatological Sciences
21: Metabolic Profiling: Disease and Xenobiotics
View Online
22: Manganese in Health and Disease
23: Toxicology, Survival and Health Hazards of Combustion Products
24: Masked Mycotoxins in Food: Formation, Occurrence and Toxicological
Relevance
25: Aerobiology: The Toxicology of Airborne Pathogens and Toxins
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Aerobiology
The Toxicology of Airborne Pathogens
and Toxins
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18 Edited by
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1 Issues in Toxicology No. 25
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g | Print ISBN: 978-1-84973-594-0
c.or PDF eISBN: 978-1-84973-791-3
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6 © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
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1 Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for
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Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,
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For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org
Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY, UK
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3- Preface
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10 With a surface area of 100 m2 and a capacity of some 6 L, approximately 10%
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oi:1 of which is exchanged during each of the15 breaths taken every minute, the
g | d lungs are the most likely portal for systemic intoxication by airborne patho-
or gens and toxins. Pathogens are disease-producing microorganisms. Bacteria,
c.
s.rs mycoplasma, rickettsia, fungi and viruses are among the naturally occurring
ub pathogens. Toxins are poisons produced through the metabolic activities of
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p:// living organisms. They are organic chemical compounds such as proteins,
htt polypeptides and alkaloids that come from a variety of biological sources.
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o In Chapter 1, Henderson and Salem discuss the relationships between the
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01 structure and historical development the atmosphere of and the presence
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pril of airborne microbial life. They address the questions of contributions from
A the atmosphere to the origin and evolution of microbial life and whether the
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n 1 atmosphere can be considered as the true habitat for airborne microorgan-
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d isms. These are indeed relevant questions considering the diverse array of
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sh airborne microbes identified in collaborative research by the University of
ubli Colorado Denver and the North Carolina State University. The study reported
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more than 110 000 bacterial species and more than 55 000 fungal species in
dust samples collected from 1200 homes representing locations in all 50
states. The average dust sample contained 4700 bacterial species and 1400
fungal species.1 Some of these microbes could be carried on airborne dusts
of terrestrial origin and/or in airborne mists of aquatic origin. At present, it
is undecided if the atmosphere is a habitat for microbes or merely a conduit
for their dispersal.
Airborne bacteria are responsible for diseases such as anthrax (Bacillus
anthracis), diphtheria (Corynebacterium), legionellosis (Legionella pneu-
mophila), meningitis (Neisseria species), pneumonia (Mycoplasma pneumo-
niae, Streptococcus species), tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and
Issues in Toxicology No. 25
Aerobiology: The Toxicology of Airborne Pathogens and Toxins
Edited by Harry Salem and Sidney Katz
© The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
vii
View Online
viii Preface
whooping cough (Bordetella pertussis). Chickenpox (varicella zoster virus)
and smallpox (variola major virus), influenza (influenza virus), measles
(morbillivirus) and German measles (rubellavirus) and mumps (rubulavirus)
are among the diseases of viral origin communicable by airborne transport.
Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci), aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus,
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0 A. niger), histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum) and coccidioidomycosis
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F (Coccidioides immitis) are examples of infections in humans initiated by the
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1 inhalation of fungal spores and their deposition in the alveoli. In addition
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3 to infections with microbial pathogens, some of their airborne metabolic by
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4 products are toxic. Some examples of such toxins are aflatoxin, a hepatotoxin
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8 of fungal origin (Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus), botulinum toxin, a neu-
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9/ rotoxin of bacterial origin (Clostridium botulinum) and ricin, a cellular toxin
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10 extracted from the caster oil bean (Ricinus communis).
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1 The recent outbreak of measles demonstrates the importance of immuni-
doi: zation in providing effective protection against this viral disease.2 Measles is
org | only one of the two dozen or so vaccine-preventable diseases. During the 225
sc. years since Jenner “vaccinated” 8-year-old James Phipps with exudate taken
bs.r from a cowpox lesion on the hand of dairy maid Sarah Nelms,3 routine vac-
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on Georgian dairy men with an orthopoxvirus as recently as 2013. In Chapter 2,
6
1 Ibrahim and Meyer describe animal models, pathogenesis, vaccine and drug
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19 human disease and collectively the mousepox, rabbitpox and monkeypox
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o models contributed significantly to understanding the pathogenesis of the
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he disease and to developing new generations of vaccines.
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spores from the Dugway Proving Ground to as many a 68 external institu-
tions on 22 May 2015 are reminders of the continuing need for planning,
developing and implementing emergency response strategies. Hamilton et
al.8 have presented an analysis of post-attack strategies for mitigating risks
associated with reoccupying areas contaminated with Bacillus anthracis. In
Chapter 3, Falk and Eisenkraft evaluate the inhalation hazard and the dose–
response relationships for anthrax, which is another vaccine-preventable
disease. They focus on their relevance to risk analysis and response plan-
ning and on their relevance to the mitigation of biological terrorism and
biological warfare attacks. The review by Shah et al. in Chapter 7 considers
the aerodynamics of anthrax particles, their mechanisms of infection at the
molecular level and the manifestations of infection at the clinical level, in
addition to diagnosis and treatment of the inhalational, cutaneous, gastro-
intestinal and injectional forms of the disease. Timely and relevant consid-
erations of anthrax protection, detection and decontamination are included
in this chapter.
Shannon Guess Richardson9 and Nicholas Helman10 attempted to use
“ricin letters” as tools for assassinating a sitting president and a rival suitor,
View Online
Preface ix
respectively. Both were captured, tried, found guilty and incarcerated. The
Bulgarian defector Gregori Markov is thought to have been assassinated with
a ricin-injecting umbrella during the cold war.11 Pincus et al.12 have focused
on the potential use of aerosolized ricin as a bioweapon for use against civil-
ian and military personnel and they have reported on the clinical aspects of
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0 inhalation exposure to ricin. Henderson et al. present a detailed description
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F of ricin toxicity at the molecular level in Chapter 5.
13- The Working Group on Civilian Biodefense13 developed consensus-based
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3 recommendations for measures to be taken by medical personnel and public
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4 health officers in the event that botulinum neurotoxin was used as a bio-
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8 logical weapon against a human population. The 23 members of the Work-
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9/ ing Group, representing academic, government and private institutions,
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10 were experts in public health, emergency management and clinical medi-
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1 cine. They concluded that an aerosol- or food-borne botulinum neurotoxin
oi:
d weapon would cause acute systemic, descending flaccid paralysis with bul-
org | bar palsies such as diplopia, dysarthria, dysphonia and dysphagia that would
sc. typically present 12–72 h after exposure. Effective response to a deliberate
bs.r release of botulinum toxin would depend on timely clinical diagnosis, case
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htt botulinum neurotoxin should be closely observed and those with signs of
on botulism would require prompt treatment with antitoxin and supportive care
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1 that would include assisted ventilation for weeks of months. The treatment
0
2
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19 the botulinum neurotoxin were completely protected when exposed to doses
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o up to several thousand times the LD . In Chapter 4, Adler and Franz review
d 50
he the consequences of exposure to botulinum neurotoxin by both the ingestion
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bli and inhalation routes. They cite the effectiveness of treatment with equine
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antitoxins in non-human primates exposed to botulinum neurotoxin by the
inhalation route. Like Park and Simpson,14 Adler and Franz stress the need
for initiating treatment promptly.
The threat of bioterrorism and pandemics has highlighted the urgency
for rapid and reliable bioaerosol detection.15,16 Early detection of airborne
pathogens and toxins is essential for reducing contagion and initiating
protective measures. In Chapter 6, Santarpia identifies the compositions
of ambient biological aerosols, discusses the roles of bacteria, viruses and
fungi and reviews methods for their measurement. In Chapter 8, Trebše et al.
review the chemical, physiological, biochemical and immunochemical prin-
ciples serving as the basis of methods for the detection of airborne patho-
gens and toxins and the applications of these principles to their detection
and measurement.
Several aspects of particle physics were considered by Polymenakou17 in
his review on bioaerosols. In Chapter 9, Corriveau discusses these aspects
as they relate to the weaponization of biological agents. In Chapter 10,
Kesavan et al. discuss the impacts of particle size, shape, density, surface
area, mass and concentration on predicting the movements of bioaerosols.
View Online
x Preface
In Chapter 11, Bona and Katz include these parameters in their discus-
sion of the models for air filtration, and also identify some of the airborne
pathogens and toxins, compare air filtration devices and describe some
applications of respiratory protection devices.
Aerial dispersion of pathogens is a potential route for the spread of infec-
07 tion. King et al.18 have combined computational fluid dynamics simulations
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F of bioaerosol deposition with a probabilistic healthcare workers surface
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1 contact model to estimate pathogen accrual. In Chapter 12, McClellan
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3 et al. describe the Deposition And Response in the Respiratory Tract (DARRT)
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4 model, which accounts for variations in human response caused by differ-
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8 ences in particle size, in particular, for coarse particles that may be present
7
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9/ near an aerosol dissemination source and that may remain suspended long
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10 enough in an urban environment to expose large numbers of people. In
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1 Chapter 13, Reed et al. describe and discuss several reproducible exposure
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d methods for producing standardized infections by inhaled viral and bacte-
org | rial agents. In Chapter 14, Ingersoll and Williams present computer code
sc. for agent-based disease models in the mathematical programming language
bs.r R allowing characterizations of the dynamics of infectious diseases in host
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p://p communities.
htt The contents of these chapters are intended to provide information for the
on protection of human health from the harmful effects of airborne pathogens
6
1 and toxins. Continued research and development will undoubtedly change
0
2
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19 further enhancement of the quality of life in all parts of Planet Earth.
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d Sidney A. Katz
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blis Cherry Hill, NJ
Pu Harry Salem
Edgewood, MD
References
1. Researchers Produce First Atlas of Airborne Microbes Across the United States,
http://colorado.edu/news/releases/2015/04/20/researchers-produce-
first-atlas-of-airborne-microbes-across-the-united-states#st-
hash.4UCO8Ud5.dpuf.
2. N. S. Clemmons, P. A. Gastanaduy, A. P. Fiebelkorn, S. B. Redd and G. S.
Wallace, Measles – United States, January 4 – April 5, 2015, Morbidity
and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtm/mm6414a.htm.
3. S. Riedel, Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox and Vaccination,
Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, 2005, 18, 21–25.
4. M. L. Vora, Y. Li, M. Geleishvil, G. L. Emerson, E. Khmaladze, G. Magh-
lakelidze, A. Navdarashvili, K. Zakhasvili, M. Endeladze, G. Mokverash-
vili, P. S. Satheshkumar, N. Gallardo-Romero, C. S. Goldsmith, M. G.