Table Of ContentADVERTISING
TO CHILDREN ON TV
CONTENT, IMPACT, AND REGULATION
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ADVERTISING
TO CHILDREN ON TV
CONTENT, IMPACT, AND REGULATION
Barrie Gunter
Caroline Oates
and
Mark Blades
University of Sheffield, United Kingdom
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
2005 Mahwah, New Jersey London
Copyright © 2005 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
10 Industrial Avenue
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430
Cover design by Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gunter, Barrie.
Advertising to children on tv : content, impact, and regulation /
Barrie Gunter, Caroline Oates, and Mark Blades.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8058-4488-0 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Television advertising and children. 2. Advertising and children.
I. Oates, Caroline. II. Blades, Mark. III. Title.
HQ784.T4G858 2004
302.23'45'083—dc22 2004043266
CIP
Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-
free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability.
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21
Contents
Preface vii
1 The Issues About Television Advertising to Children 1
2 The Nature of Advertising to Children 14
3 Children's Early Understanding of Television Advertisements 30
4 Advanced Understanding of Advertising 48
5 Theoretical Approaches to Studying Children's 62
Understanding of Advertisements
6 Advertising Impact: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Values 81
7 Advertising Influence: Choice and Consumption 102
8 The Incidental Influence of Advertising 119
9 Advertising Regulation and Research 139
v
vi CONTENTS
10 Concluding Comments 164
References 171
Author Index 197
Subject Index 205
Preface
This book examines research concerned with advertising to children on
television. Its purpose is to establish the status of our knowledge about how
children respond to advertising on television, how much the research evi-
dence can be taken at face value, and the degree to which research can use-
fully inform regulation of advertising aimed at young viewers. It comes at a
time when concern is growing about the effectiveness of television advertis-
ing regulation in light of technological developments in media. Such devel-
opments include the rapid growth of television channels that are available
via a number of platforms—terrestrial, satellite, and cable—and that are be-
ing further facilitated through the transition of broadcasting from analogue
to digital transmission.
Digitalization means not only more television channels for viewers to
choose from but also greater scope for interactivity. This, in turn, may mean
more power to consumers to select what to watch, when to watch, and how
to watch. Concerns about increased volumes of advertising on burgeoning
television channels and the use of more subtle forms of advertising that ac-
company greater commercialization of the television system (e.g., program
sponsorship, product placement, program-related merchandising) have led
to calls for tighter regulations governing televised advertising. This develop-
ment is regarded as being especially necessary where children are concerned
because their psychological immaturity as viewers and consumers leaves
them more vulnerable to advertising influences.
Any move toward tightening restrictions upon advertising will create a
tension with freedom of speech rights in democratic societies. To overrule
vii
viii PREFACE
freedom of speech (which includes freedom to advertise) rights, a legislator,
regulator, or complainant will need to prove that harm is being done by com-
mercial messages. Discussion of this issue has become particularly acute in
debates surrounding moves to harmonize or even to standardize advertising-
related regulations across national boundaries—such as in Europe. Some
countries operate much tighter regulations than others over advertising to
children on television, and finding common ground that satisfies all na-
tional partners' concerns about children and about the freedom for advertis-
ers to reach consumers with promotional messages can be difficult.
Concern about advertising aimed at children on television represents
part of a wider public debate about how much protection children need in a
society where sources of information and entertainment are expanding and
new communications technologies have facilitated greater access to con-
tent through a variety of platforms. In this environment, parents may find it
increasingly difficult to control their children's media consumption, despite
their willingness to assume such a responsibility. Hence, there may remain a
need for centralized regulation and control over media content of all kinds.
But what degree of regulation is needed to offer effective protection of chil-
dren against misleading commercial messages and advertising treatments
that may encourage potentially harmful behavior among young viewers?
Within this context, how useful is research into children and advertising?
Has it yielded findings that can be helpful in informing policy, regulation,
codes of practice, and control implementation strategies?
The research reviewed in this book examines the content of advertising
on television aimed at children, children's understanding of advertising, and
the influence of advertising on young viewers. Research into children's com-
prehension of small-screen advertising has considered initial identification
of advertisements as features of television separate from programs and has
investigated more advanced understanding of the concept of persuasive in-
tent. Researchers have used measures of attention to the screen, memory for
content, and direct verbal comments on the nature of advertisements in the
process of understanding more about children's and teenagers' abilities to
comprehend advertising.
The influence of advertising can be differentiated into effects on knowl-
edge and attitudes and effects on actual purchase choices and consumption
behavior. Influence can also be divided into intended and unintended ef-
fects of advertising. As well as having an effect on product purchase and
consumption, some advertising may have spin-off effects, shaping social val-
ues or influencing behavior beyond immediate purchase and use of the ad-
vertised product. Concerns have been voiced about advertising side effects
on diet, alcohol, and tobacco consumption; drug taking; sexual behavior;
and the wider health of children.
PREFACE ix
The authors have conducted their own research into children's under-
standing of television advertising that is continuing and will examine in par-
ticular the efficacy of certain regulations and codes of practice concerning
advertising aimed at children. Hence, the book is informed by the latest
research in the field.
In addition to providing a review of research into key areas such as under-
standing and influence, the book turns a critical eye on the nature of the
methodologies used to investigate children and television advertising. Re-
searchers have used a range of qualitative (e.g., focused interviews) and
quantitative techniques (e.g., surveys and experiments). Each methodology
has idiosyncratic advantages and limitations that need to be borne in mind
when interpreting research findings. This level of analysis is necessary in the
context of judging the value of research evidence in informing advertising
regulation.
Finally, the book considers what research completed so far has revealed in
terms of the sum total of our knowledge about television advertising and
children. In looking to the future, it is important not just to consider how ef-
fective advertising regulations and codes of practice have been in the light of
what is known from research. It is also essential to be mindful of the techno-
logical developments in television broadcasting and advertising. Will these
developments engage young consumers differently and require a different
form of advertising regulation? Can consumers be expected to have the abil-
ity to self-regulate? Will young consumers need help in understanding the
nature and intent of advertising in a more dynamic and varied media and
marketing environment?
—B.C., CO., and M.B.
September 2003
