Table Of ContentADVANCES
IN ROCK-
SUPPORT AND
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
Shuren Wang
Paul C. Hagan
Chen Cao
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON
NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO
SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO
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Biography
Shuren Wang, PhD, Professor at School
of Civil Engineering, Henan Polytechnic
University, Jiaozuo 454003, China. Contact
details: þ86 15738529570; [email protected].
His research interests primarily includes
the challenging areas of mining engineering,
geotechnical engineering, rock mechanics, and
numericalsimulationanalysis.Hisresearchpro-
jects have been supported by National Natural
Science Foundation of China (51474188;
51074140; 51310105020), National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of Hebei Province of China
(E2014203012), Science and Technology Depart-
ment of Hebei Province of China (072756183),
and so forth. He is the recipient of six state-
level and province-level awards and the 2015
Endeavor Research Fellowship provided by the
Australian Government. He has authored more
than 90 academic papers and books. These
include 85 articles in peer-reviewed journals,
six monographs, and numerous textbooks. He
has been authorized four patents and one soft-
ware of intellectual propertyrightin China.
Paul C. Hagan, PhD, Associate Professor,
Head of School of Mining Engineering, Univer-
sity of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney,
NSW 2052, Australia. Contact details: þ61 2
9385 5998; [email protected].
His principal research interests include
mine geotechnical engineering and other areas
in mining engineering. He has more than
30years of experience within the mining indus-
try and university sectors. Prior to his appoint-
ment to UNSW in 1998, he worked locally and
vii
viii
BIOGRAPHY
internationallyinthecoal,gold,andironoresec- in2013.Hehasbeenmainlyinvolvedinrockme-
torsinarangeofoperational,management,tech- chanics, mining engineering, and numerical
nical, and research roles. He has been the simulation, and has made many breakthroughs
principal research investigator of leading pro- at dealing with the problems with complex
jects in the rock-cutting research facility. The geological and engineering conditions, espe-
research has made significant advances in the cially in large shear displacement by mining
application of acoustic emissions in monitoring pressure and other factors on rock bolting and
and control of rock-cutting machines and in the anchor support. He has authored more than 20
determination of controlling factors associated academic papers in the research field.
withabrasivitytesting ofrock.Hehasauthored
80 peer-reviewed papers, 110 project reports,
and three patents.
ChenCao,PhD,ResearchFellowatSchool
of Civil, Mining, and Environmental Engineer-
ing, University of Wollongong, NSW 2530,
Australia. Contact details: þ61 2 4221 7945;
[email protected].
After he graduated from Xi’an Jiaotong
University,Chinawithabachelor’sdegreeinsci-
ence, he worked in computer engineering and
had nine years of experience in the field of con-
structionandmanagement.HeobtainedaBach-
elorofEngineeringdegreein2009andreceiveda
PhD degree with distinguished award for his
PhD thesis from the University of Wollongong
Preface
There have been significant advances in rock use and interest to the researchers undertaking
mechanics and understanding of the behavior various geotechnical engineering and rock me-
of rock with developments in science and engi- chanics, teachers and students in the related
neering. This has occurred at the same time as universities, as well as on-site technicians.
therehasbeengreaterdemandfortheutilization The material presented in this book contrib-
of underground space that has in many cases utes to the expansion of knowledge related to
pushed the limits in the engineering design of rock mechanics. The authors, through their
underground excavations while there has been extensive fundamental and applied research
thecontinualneedtoimprovesafetyandreduce over the past decade, cover a diverse range of
thecostofexcavation.Itisimperative,then,that topics from the microbehavior of rock and rock
research continues which will provide the properties through the interaction of large-scale
knowledge necessary to underpin the design rockmassesanditseffectonsurfacesubsidence,
anddevelopmentofnewexcavationtechniques. mechanicsofrockcutting,techniquestoimprove
Thebooksummarizesandenrichesthelatest the strength and integrity of rock structures in
research results on the theory of rock me- surface and underground excavations, and
chanics, analytical methods, innovative tech- improvement in approaches to modeling tech-
nologies, and its applications in practical niquesused in engineering design.
engineering. The book isdivided into six chap- Shuren Wang, PhD
ters including such features as Chapter 1: Rock Professor atSchool of Civil Engineering, Henan
Testing (Shuren Wang Sections 1e7; Paul PolytechnicUniversity, China
Hagan Section 8); Chapter 2: Rock Bolting Paul C.Hagan, PhD
(Chen Cao Sections 1e7; Paul Hagan Section AssociateProfessorandHeadofSchoolofMining
8); Chapter 3: Grouted Anchor (Paul Hagan); Engineering,University ofNew SouthWales,
Chapter 4: Tunneling Engineering (Shuren Australia
Wang); Chapter 5: Slope Engineering (Shuren Chen Cao, PhD
Wang); and Chapter 6: Mining Geomechanics Research Fellow at School of Civil, Miningand
(Shuren Wang). This book is innovative, prac- Environmental Engineering,University ofWollon-
tical, and rich in content, which can be of great gong, Australia
ix
Acknowledgments
The authors are pleased to acknowledge Prof. Youfeng Zou, Prof. Xiaolin Yang, Prof.
the support received from various organiza- XiliangLiu,Prof.ZhaoweiLiu,Prof.Zhengsheng
tions, including the National Natural Science Zou,Prof.JianhuiYang,Prof.YanboZhang,and
Foundation of China (51474188; 51074140; other related people. A number of postgraduate
51310105020); the Natural Science Foundation students, namely Jianhang Chen, Li Li, Chunliu
of Hebei Province of China (E2014203012); the Li, Haiqing Zhang, Yan Cheng, Baowen Hu,
ChinaScholarshipCouncil(CSC);theHebeiPro- Chengguo Zhang, Peipei Liu, Huihui Jia, Hu
vincial Office of Education (2010813124); 2015 Wang, Mengshi Chang, Zhongqiu Wang, Ning
Endeavor Research Fellowship and Program Li, Dianfu Xu, Yongguang Wang, Junqing Su,
for Taihang Scholars; International Cooperation Huaiguang Xiao, Yanhai Zhao, Chunyang Li,
Project of Henan Science and Technology and others assisted in the design, construction,
Department (162102410027); Doctoral Fund of and commissioning of the test facility and with
HenanPolytechnicUniversity(B2015-67);Open- the experimentation; their contributions to
ingProjectofKeyLaboratoryofDeepMineCon- the book are acknowledged and appreciated.
struction; Provincial Key Disciplines of Civil The untiring efforts of Mr. Kanchana Gamage,
Engineering of Henan Polytechnic University; Dr. Juninchi Kodama, Dr. Mojtaba Bahaaddini,
and the School of Mining Engineering, Univer- and Dr. Hossein Masoumi during equipment
sity of NewSouthWales. designandlaboratorytestingprogramsaregrate-
While it is not possible to name them all, the fullyappreciated.Thanksandapologiestoothers
authors are particularly thankful to Prof. Man- whosecontributionswehaveoverlooked.
chao He, Prof. Meifeng Cai, Prof. Ji’an Wang,
xi
C H A P T E R
1
Rock Testing
1. INSTABILITY tosetupverticaldeformationmodeloftheover-
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE lappingroofinthemined-outareas,andputfor-
SANDSTONE PLATE wardthecriteriaforevaluatingtheroofstability.
Wang et al. (2013c) analyzed the chaos and sto-
1.1 Introduction chastic resonance phenomenon produced in the
roof during the evolutionary process of the rock
InChina,numerousshallowmined-outareas
beam deformation. Meanwhile, some numerical
have been left due to the disordered mining by
computationmethodswereappliedindiscussing
theprivatecoalmines.Itisofimportanttheoret-
the mechanical response of rock plate or beam.
icalandpracticalvaluefortheroofstabilityeval-
Wang et al. (2008a) analyzed the blast-induced
uation and disaster forecasting to research the
stresswavepropagationandthespallingdamage
deformation rupture, instability mechanism,
inarockplatebyusingthefinite-differencecode.
and failure mode of the rock roof in the mined-
Nomiko et al. (2002) researched the mechanical
out areas.
response of the multijointed roof beams using
Thestudiesontheinstabilityoftherockroofin
two dimensional distinct element code. Mazor
theminingfieldhavebeenamaintopicbothfor
etal.(2009)examinedthearchingmechanismof
scholars in China and abroad. For example, ac-
the blocky rock mass deformation after the un-
cording to elastic thin plate theory, Wang et al.
derground tunnel being excavated using the
(2006)analyzedthefractureinstabilitycharacter-
discrete element method. Cravero and Iabichino
isticsoftheroofunderdifferentminingdistances
(2004) discussed the flexural failure of a gneiss
in the mining work face. Wang et al. (2008a)
slabfromaquarryfacebyvirtueoflinearelastic
analyzed the rheological failure characteristics
fracture mechanics (LEFM) and finite element
of the roof in the mined-out areas through
method(FEM).
combining the thin plate and rheology theories.
In summary, though many research achieve-
Pan et al. (2013) had conducted the analytical
ments have been made, the most results still
analysis of the variation trend of the bending
lack laboratory testing and need to be verified.
moment, the deflection, and the shear force of
In addition, some numerical calculations were
the hard roof in the mining field. This research
conducted based on the continuum mechanics,
is inclined to adopt traditional analytic methods
which could not reflect the spatial heterogeneity
to probe into the roof stability. New theories
andtheanisotropiceffectoftheroofinthemining
and methods have been used in recent years.
field.Onlyafewresearchersutilizedthediscrete
Zhaoetal.(2010)utilizedthecatastrophetheory
element methods to study the macromechanical
AdvancesinRock-SupportandGeotechnicalEngineering Copyright©2016TsinghuaUniversityPressLtd.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-810552-8.00001-5 PublishedbyElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2
1. ROCKTESTING
response of the rock plate, and did not further 1.2.2 LoadingEquipment
explorethemicroscopicdamageoftherockplate.
TheMTS-851rockmechanicstestingmachine
Therefore, a new loading device was developed
wasselectedasloadingequipment,andtheload
to study the rock-arch instability characteristics was controlled by vertical displacement and
of the plate, and particle flow code (PFC) was loading rate was set 1(cid:1)10(cid:3)2mm/s (Potyondy
used to further probe into the microscopic dam-
and Cundall, 2004). The vertical force and
age of the rock plate under the concentrated
displacement occurred in the process of the test
andtheuniformloading,respectively.
and were automatically recorded in real time
by a data acquisition system.
1.2 Loading Experiment of Rock Plate As shown in Fig. 1.1, the concentrated and
the uniform-loading test sets mainly consisted
1.2.1 Samplesof Rock Plate of three parts. The top was a point-loading for
The rock samples used in the test were the concentrated loading or an assembly of the
Hawkesbury sandstone, which obtained from steel balls for the uniform loading. The middle
GosfordQuarryinSydney,Australia.Thequartz was a loading framework which included four
sandstones which contained a small quantity of bolts with nuts connecting the steel plates on
feldspars, siderite, and clay minerals were both sides, and the lateral pressure cell was
formed in marine sedimentary basin of the placed between the deformable steel plate and
mid-Triassic, and located on the top of coal- the thick steel plate so as to monitor the hori-
bearingstrata.Thesurfaceofspecimenexhibited zontalforce.Thecapacityofthelateralpressure
localredratherthanwhitebecauseofthecontent cell Low Pressure X Type (LPX) was 1000kg.
and distribution of iron oxide. The bottom was a rectangle steel foundation,
Forthesingle-layerroofofthemined-outareas, the rotatable hinge supports were set on both
itcouldbeclassifiedintotwocategoriesaccording sidesoftheloadingframeworktomaintaincon-
tothethickness:thethinplateandthethickplate. necting with the steel plates.
Andtheroofwasalwaysmadeupofvariouscom-
1.2.3 Acoustic Equipment and Data
binations of the thin plates and the thick plates.
Thus,accordingtothedefinitionofthethinplate Acquisition System
andthethickplateinelasticmechanics,thespec- To monitor the cracks initiated and identify
imen size of the thick plate was deigned to the failure location of the rock plate, the USB
190mm(cid:1)75mm(cid:1)24mm (length, width, and Acoustic Emission (AE) Nodes were used in
thickness)andthatofthethinplatewasdeigned the test. The USB AE Node is a single channel
to 190mm(cid:1)75mm(cid:1)14mm (length, width, AE digital signal processor with full AE hit and
andthickness).Thespecimenswereobtainedby time based features. In the test there were four
cutting the same sandstone in the laboratory of USB AE nodes being connected to a USB hub
School of Mining Engineering, University of for multichannel operation (Fig. 1.2). All these
NewSouthWales.Thephysicalemechanicalpa- AE nodes were made in MISTRAS Group, Inc.,
rametersofrockplateswereshowninTable1.1. in the UnitedStates.
TABLE1.1 PhysicalandMechanicalParametersofRockPlates
DensityElasticModulus Poisson Cohesion FrictionAngle TensileStrength Compression
Name (kg/m3) (GPa) Ratio (MPa) (Degrees) (MPa) Strength(MPa)
Sandstone 2650 2.7 0.20 2.8 45 0.95 13.5
3
1. INSTABILITYCHARACTERISTICSOFASINGLESANDSTONEPLATE
(A) (B)
FIGURE1.1 Loadingexperimentfortherockplate.(A)Concentratedloading.(B)Uniformloading.
1.3 Experiment Results and Analysis
MTS loading
AE MTS
1.3.1 Characteristicof
3 1 ForceeDisplacement Curve
4 2 Lateral
load cell As shown in Fig. 1.3, the vertical force-
Power 1US2B h3ub4 AE sensor displacement curves appeared two peaks
underboththeconcentrateloadingandtheuni-
form loading, and the second peak value is
higher than the first one. The thin rock plate
A B C D
showed the similarity cases in the test with
the thick plate; only thepeak values of the ver-
FIGURE1.2 MechanicsTestingSystem(MTS)connection tical and the horizontal force were lower than
withacousticemissionmonitoringsystemdiagram. that of the thick one. In general, the curves of
(A) (B)
6.5 Vertical force 18 Vertical force
6.0 Horizontal force 16 Horizontal force
5.5
14
5.0
4.5 Stage 4 12 Stage 4
N) 4.0 Stage 3 N) 10 Stage 3
k 3.5 k
e ( 3.0 Stage 2 e ( 8 Stage 2
c c
or 2.5 or 6
F 2.0 Stage 1 F Stage 1
1.5 4
1.0 2
0.5
0
0.0
–0.5 –2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
FIGURE 1.3 Forceedisplacement curves under different loading conditions. (A) Concentrated loading. (B) Uniform
loading.
4
1. ROCKTESTING
the forceedisplacement could be classified as than that under the concentrated loading, espe-
four mechanical response stages as follows ciallyatthetwoendsoftherockplate(Fig.1.1B).
(Fig. 1.1A): As shown in Fig. 1.3, the loadedisplacement
curve showed similarity with the concentrated
Stage 1:Therock plate was in the small
loading, and the peak value of the vertical force
deformation elastic stage. Withthe vertical
was greater than that under the concentrated
force slowlyincreasing, the vertical
loading.
displacement grew gradually. On the
contrary,thehorizontalforceshowedaslight
1.3.2 Acoustic Characteristicof the Rock-
decrease, which was mainlycausedby the
Plate Failure
slight horizontal shrink of the rock plate
during the loading process. As shown in Fig. 1.4, in the beginning of the
Stage 2: The rock plate produced a brittle stagetwo,theAEhitsundertheuniformloading
rupture and formed the rock-arch structure. were greater than that under the concentrated
As the vertical displacement went to about loading,whichwasabout5000and4500,respec-
2.5mm, the vertical force appeared to first tively. In Stage 3 and Stage 4, the AE hits were
increaseabruptlyandthendropsharplyina also greater and more evenly distributed under
smallinterval,whichindicatedtherockplate theuniform loadingcomparedwith theconcen-
producing a brittle rupture. Subsequently, trated loading, which was about 5000 and 3000,
the rock-arch structure was formed under respectively.
the vertical and the horizontal reaction As shown in the AE location map (Figs. 1.5
forces, and the horizontal force started to and1.6),theresultsshowedobviousdifferences
increase. intheinitialcrackpositionandthecracksdistri-
Stage 3: The rock-arch structure began to butionoftherockplateunderdifferentloading
bear loads and produced deformation. With conditions. When the rock-arch structure went
the vertical force increasing, the middle into instability, there also showed the differ-
hingepointoftherock-archstructuremoved ences in the damage extent and scope between
down, and the two flanks of the rock-arch the two loading methods. All in all, the results
rotatedaroundthehingepoint,respectively. of AE hits and location showed the over-
Suchkindsofmotionwouldstretchtherock- damage extent and scope of the rock plate
archstructureinthehorizontaldirectionand caused by the uniform loading were more
squeezed the plate in two sides, and the serious than that under the concentrated
horizontal force showed a significant loading condition.
growth.
Stage 4:Thehinged rock-arch structure
1.4 Numerical Simulations of the
becameunstable.Withthe vertical force
Loading Test
continuously increasing, the middlehinged
pointoftherock-archstructuremoveddown 1.4.1 Parameters Calibration ofthe
constantly,and whenthe hingedpoint Rock Plate
exceededthe horizontal line formed by the
The rockplate wastreated as theporousand
hinged point and two ends of the plate,the
solid material that consisted of particles and
rock-arch structure becamethoroughly
cement bodies. The forceedisplacement curve
unstable.
was simulated under the concentrated loading
Under the uniform loading, the damage and using the three-dimensional particle flow code
fractureextentoftherockplatewasmoreserious (PFC3D).
