Table Of ContentAdvanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies
V 5
OLUME
H E E
ANDBOOK OF NVIRONMENTAL NGINEERING
Advanced
Physicochemical
Treatment Technologies
Edited by
Lawrence K. Wang, , ,
PhD PE DEE
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY
Yung-Tse Hung, , ,
PhD PE DEE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH
Nazih K. Shammas,
PhD
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA
Dedication
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Preface
The past thirty years have seen the emergence of a growing desire world-
wide that positive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from
the degrading effects of all forms of pollution — air, water, soil, and noise.
Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, the seemingly ide-
alistic demand for “zero discharge” can be construed as an unrealistic demand
for zero waste. However, as long as waste continues to exist, we can only at-
tempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form.
Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has
been identified: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate
it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement
achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the Handbook of Environmental
Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to help readers for-
mulate answers to the last two questions above.
The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific
pollution problems has been a major contributing factor to the success of envi-
ronmental engineering, and has accounted in large measure for the establish-
ment of a “methodology of pollution control.” However, the realization of the
ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current environmental
problems renders it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement
systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to such planning is an understanding of
the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution
abatement available for environmental scientists and engineers. In this series
of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineer-
ing systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or
of potential utility, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unified inter-
disciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the evo-
lution of environmental engineering.
Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an
engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental
principles and theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics.
This emphasis on fundamental science recognizes that engineering practice has
in recent years become more firmly based on scientific principles rather than
on its earlier dependency on empirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended,
though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most eco-
nomic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to funda-
mental scientific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science
in favor of more art and empiricism.
Since an environmental engineer must understand science within the con-
text of application, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a
particular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and
v
vi Preface
operations, and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental
quality control or remediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical
design and calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples
clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most di-
rect and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been pro-
vided.
Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that
the trained engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles,
be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engi-
neering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and originality in the definition
and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the en-
vironmental engineer should by conviction and practice be more readily adapt-
able to change and progress.
Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has
demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple author-
ships. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within rea-
sonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a
particular subject area; consequently, it has been difficult to treat all subject
material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space,
some of the authors’ favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and
many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on
briefly. All authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of
each chapter for the benefit of interested readers. As each chapter is meant to
be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoid-
able. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the edi-
tors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication,
the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wher-
ever possible, the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the
metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The editors sincerely hope
that this duplicity of units’ usage will prove to be useful rather than being dis-
ruptive to the readers.
The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to
cover entire environmental fields, including air and noise pollution control,
solid waste processing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment pro-
cesses, biological treatment processes, biosolids management, water resources,
natural control processes, radioactive waste disposal and thermal pollution
control; and (2) to employ a multimedia approach to environmental pollution
control since air, water, soil and energy are all interrelated.
As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, the organization of the
handbook series has been based on the three basic forms in which pollutants
and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise pollution
control is included in the handbook series.
This particular book Volume 5 Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technolo-
gies is a sister book to Volume 3 Physicochemical Treatment Processes and Vol-
ume 4 Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes. Volumes 3 and 4 have
already included the subjects of screening, comminution, equalization, neu-
Preface vii
tralization, mixing, coagulation, flocculation, chemical precipitation, recarbon-
ation, softening, oxidation, halogenation, chlorination, disinfection, ozonation,
electrolysis, sedimentation, dissolved air flotation, filtration, polymeric adsorp-
tion, granular activated carbon adsorption, membrane processes, sludge treat-
ment processes, potable water aeration, air stripping, dispersed air flotation,
powdered activated carbon adsorption, diatomaceous earth precoat filtration,
microscreening, membrane filtration, ion exchange, fluoridation, defluoridation,
ultraviolet radiation disinfection, chloramination, dechlorination, advanced oxi-
dation processes, chemical reduction/oxidation, oil water separation, evapora-
tion and solvent extraction. This book, Volume 5, includes the subjects of
pressurized ozonation, electrochemical processes, irradiation, nonthermal
plasma, thermal distillation, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, biosorption, emerg-
ing adsorption, emerging ion exchange, emerging flotation, fine pore aeration,
endocrine disruptors, small filtration systems, chemical feeding systems, wet air
oxidation, and lime calcination. All three books have been designed to serve as
comprehensive physicochemical treatment textbooks as well as wide-ranging
reference books. We hope and expect that the books will prove of equal high
value to advanced undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of water
and wastewater treatment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors
welcome comments from readers in all of these categories.
The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support re-
ceived from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of
this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and
effort, and for having patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and
comments. We are very grateful to our respective families for their patience
and understanding during some rather trying times.
Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, MA
Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, OH
Nazih K. Shammas, Lenox, MA
Contents
Preface...........................................................................................................................v
Contributors............................................................................................................xvii
1 Pressurized Ozonation
Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas.....................................................1
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System.................................................................................2
1.2. Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System..........................................................................5
2. Description of Processes..............................................................................................................................7
2.1. Ozonation and Oxygenation Process.................................................................................................7
2.2. Flotation Process.................................................................................................................................9
2.3. Filter Belt Press.................................................................................................................................13
2.4. Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System....................................................16
2.5. Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System.............................................18
3. Formation and Generation of Ozone.........................................................................................................18
3.1. Formation of Ozone..........................................................................................................................18
3.2. Generation of Ozone.........................................................................................................................19
4. Requirements for Ozonation Equipment...................................................................................................22
4.1. Feed Gas Equipment.........................................................................................................................23
4.2. Ozone Generators..............................................................................................................................24
4.3. Ozone Contactors..............................................................................................................................24
5. Properties of Ozone....................................................................................................................................26
6. Disinfection by Ozone................................................................................................................................31
7. Oxidation by Ozone....................................................................................................................................35
7.1. Ozone Reaction with Inorganics......................................................................................................35
7.2. Ozone Reaction with Organic Material...........................................................................................38
8. Oxygenation and Ozonation Systems........................................................................................................43
8.1. Oxygenation Systems.......................................................................................................................43
8.2. Ozonation Systems............................................................................................................................46
8.3. Removal of Pollutants from Waste by Ozonation...........................................................................48
Nomenclature....................................................................................................................................................50
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................................50
References.........................................................................................................................................................50
2 Electrochemical Wastewater Treatment Processes
Guohua Chen and Yung-Tse Hung................................................................57
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................................57
2. Electrochemical Reactors for Metal Recovery.........................................................................................58
2.1. Typical Reactors Applied.................................................................................................................58
2.2. Electrode Materials...........................................................................................................................64
2.3. Application Areas.............................................................................................................................64
3. Electrocoagulation......................................................................................................................................64
3.1. Factors Affecting Electrocoagulation..............................................................................................66
3.2. Electrode Materials...........................................................................................................................69
3.3. Typical Design..................................................................................................................................69
3.4. Effluents Treated by EC...................................................................................................................70
4. Electroflotation...........................................................................................................................................70
4.1. Factors Affecting EF.........................................................................................................................71
4.2. Comparison with Other Flotation Technologies.............................................................................76
4.3. Oxygen Evolution Electrodes...........................................................................................................76
ix
x Contents
4..4 Typical Designs.................................................................................................................................77
4.5. Wastewaters Treated by EF..............................................................................................................80
5. Electro-oxidation........................................................................................................................................80
5.1. Indirect EO Processes.......................................................................................................................82
5.2. Direct Anodic Oxidation..................................................................................................................82
5.3. Typical Designs.................................................................................................................................93
6. Summary.....................................................................................................................................................93
Nomenclature....................................................................................................................................................95
References.........................................................................................................................................................95
3 Irradiation
Lawrence K. Wang, J. Paul Chen, and Robert C. Ziegler ..........................107
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................107
1.1. Disinfection and Irradiation...........................................................................................................107
1.2. Pathogenic Organisms....................................................................................................................108
1.3. Pathogen Occurrence in the United States....................................................................................108
1.4. Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens.......................................................................................108
2. Pathogens and Thier Characteristics.......................................................................................................109
2.1. Viruses.............................................................................................................................................109
2.2. Bacteria............................................................................................................................................110
2.3. Parasites...........................................................................................................................................110
2.4. Fungi................................................................................................................................................112
3. Solid Substances Disinfection.................................................................................................................112
3.1. Long-Term Storage.........................................................................................................................112
3.2. Chemical Disinfection....................................................................................................................112
3.3. Low-Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection................................................................113
3.4. High-Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection...............................................................114
3.5. Composting.....................................................................................................................................114
3.6. High-Energy Radiation...................................................................................................................115
4. Disinfection with Electron Irradiation....................................................................................................115
4.1. Electron Irradiation Systems and Process Description.................................................................115
4.2. Electron Irradiation Design Considerations..................................................................................117
4.3. Electron Irradiation Operational Considerations..........................................................................118
4.4. Electron Irradiation Performance...................................................................................................118
5. Disinfection with (cid:76)-Irradiation................................................................................................................119
5.1. (cid:76)-Irradiation Systems and Process Description.............................................................................119
5.2. (cid:76)-Irradiation Design Considerations..............................................................................................122
5.3. (cid:76)-Irradiation Operational Considerations......................................................................................124
6. X-Ray Facilities........................................................................................................................................126
7. New Applications.....................................................................................................................................126
7.1. Food Disinfection by Irradiation....................................................................................................126
7.2. Hospital Waste Treatment by Irradiation......................................................................................128
7.3. Mail Irradiation...............................................................................................................................130
8. Glossary....................................................................................................................................................131
References.......................................................................................................................................................132
4 Nonthermal Plasma Technology
Toshiaki Yamamoto and Masaaki Okubo ....................................................135
1. Fundamental Characteristics of Nonthermal Plasma..............................................................................135
1.1. Definition and Characteristics of Plasma......................................................................................135
1.2. Generation of Plasma......................................................................................................................145
1.3. Analysis and Diagnosis of Nonthermal Plasma............................................................................165
2. Environmental Improvement...................................................................................................................173
2.1. Electrostatic Precipitator................................................................................................................173
2.2. Combustion Flue Gas Treatment from Power Plant.....................................................................183
2.3. Nonthermal Plasma Application for Detoxification.....................................................................196
2.4. Air Cleaner for Odor Control.........................................................................................................199
Contents xi
2.5. Ozone Synthesis and Applications.................................................................................................206
2.6. Decomposition of Freon and VOC................................................................................................212
2.7. Diesel Engine Exhaust Gas Treatment..........................................................................................215
2.8. Gas Concentration Using Nonthermal Plasma Desorption...........................................................239
2.9. Emission Gas Decomposition in Semiconductor Manufacturing Process...................................248
3. Surface Modification................................................................................................................................256
3.1. RF Plasma CVD..............................................................................................................................256
3.2. Surface Modification for Substrate................................................................................................257
3.3. Surface Modification for Glass......................................................................................................261
3.4. Surface Modification for Polymer or Cloth...................................................................................266
3.5. Surface Modification for Metal......................................................................................................271
Nomenclature..................................................................................................................................................277
References.......................................................................................................................................................280
5 Thermal Distillation and Electrodialysis Technologies for Desalination
J. Paul Chen, Lawrence K. Wang, and Lei Yang ........................................295
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................295
2. Thermal Distillation.................................................................................................................................301
2.1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................301
2.2 Working Mechanisms.....................................................................................................................302
2.3. Multistage Flash Distillation..........................................................................................................304
2.4. Multieffect Distillation...................................................................................................................304
2.5. Vapor Compression........................................................................................................................307
2.6. Solar Desalination...........................................................................................................................307
2.7. Important Issues in Design (O&M)...............................................................................................311
3. Electrodialysis..........................................................................................................................................312
3.1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................312
3.2. Mechanisms.....................................................................................................................................312
3.3. Important Issues in Design.............................................................................................................314
3.4. Electrodialysis Reversal.................................................................................................................317
3.5. Electrodeionization.........................................................................................................................319
4. Reverse Osmosis ......................................................................................................................................321
5. Energy.......................................................................................................................................................322
6. Environmental Aspect of Desalination...................................................................................................324
Nomenclature..................................................................................................................................................325
References.......................................................................................................................................................326
6 Reverse Osmosis Technology for Desalination
Edward S.K. Chian, J. Paul Chen, Ping-Xin Sheng,
Yen-Peng Ting, and Lawrence K. Wang..................................................329
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................329
2. Membrane Filtration Theory....................................................................................................................330
2.1. Osmosis and RO..............................................................................................................................330
2.2 Membranes......................................................................................................................................332
2.3. Membrane Filtration Theory..........................................................................................................334
2.4. Concentration Polarization.............................................................................................................338
2.5. Compaction.....................................................................................................................................339
3. Membrane Modules and Plant Configuration.........................................................................................340
3.1. Membrane Modules........................................................................................................................340
3.2. Plant Configuration of Membrane Modules..................................................................................343
4. Pretreatment and Cleaning of Membrane................................................................................................346
4.1. Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling...............................................................................................346
4.2. Feed Pretreatment...........................................................................................................................349
4.3. Membrane Cleaning and Regeneration..........................................................................................354
5. Case Study................................................................................................................................................359
5.1. Acidification and Scale Prevention for Pretreatment....................................................................359
5.2. Cartridge Filters for Prefiltration...................................................................................................359
5.3. Reverse Osmosis.............................................................................................................................359
xii Contents
5.4 Neutralization and Posttreatment...................................................................................................361
5.5. Total Water Production Cost and Grand Total Costs...................................................................362
Nomenclature..................................................................................................................................................362
References.......................................................................................................................................................363
7 Emerging Biosorption, Adsorption, Ion Exchange,
and Membrane Technologies
J. Paul Chen, Lawrence K. Wang, Lei Yang, and Soh-Fong Lim..............367
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................367
2. Emerging Biosorption for Heavy Metals................................................................................................367
2.1. Biosorption Chemistry....................................................................................................................368
2.2 Biosorption Process........................................................................................................................369
2.3. Biosorption Mathematical Modeling.............................................................................................372
3. Magnetic Ion Exchange Process..............................................................................................................374
4. Liquid Membrane Process.......................................................................................................................377
4.1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................377
4.2. Mechanism......................................................................................................................................377
4.3. Applications....................................................................................................................................378
5. Emerging Technologies for Arsenic Removal........................................................................................380
5.1. Precipitation–Coagulation, Sedimentation, and Flotation............................................................380
5.2. Electrocoagulation..........................................................................................................................381
5.3. Adsorption.......................................................................................................................................382
5.4. Ion Exchange...................................................................................................................................386
5.5. Membrane Filtration.......................................................................................................................386
Nomenclature..................................................................................................................................................387
References.......................................................................................................................................................387
8 Fine Pore Aeration of Water and Wastewater
Nazih K. Shammas.........................................................................................391
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................391
2. Description................................................................................................................................................392
3. Types of Fine Pore Media........................................................................................................................393
3.1. Ceramics..........................................................................................................................................394
3.2. Porous Plastics................................................................................................................................395
3.3. Perforated Membranes....................................................................................................................396
4. Types of Fine Pore Diffusers...................................................................................................................398
4.1. Plate Diffusers.................................................................................................................................398
4.2. Tube Diffusers.................................................................................................................................400
4.3. Dome Diffusers...............................................................................................................................402
4.4. Disc Diffusers .................................................................................................................................403
5. Diffuser Layout........................................................................................................................................407
5.1. Plate Diffusers.................................................................................................................................408
5.2. Tube Diffusers.................................................................................................................................409
5.3. Disc and Dome Diffusers...............................................................................................................410
6. Characteristics of Fine Pore Media.........................................................................................................411
6.1. Physical Description.......................................................................................................................411
6.2. Dimensions......................................................................................................................................411
6.3. Weight and Specific Weight...........................................................................................................412
6.4. Permeability....................................................................................................................................412
6.5. Perforation Pattern..........................................................................................................................413
6.6. Strength............................................................................................................................................413
6.7. Hardness..........................................................................................................................................414
6.8. Environmental Resistance..............................................................................................................414
6.9. Miscellaneous Physical Properties.................................................................................................415
6.10.Oxygen Transfer Efficiency...........................................................................................................415
