Table Of ContentAdvanced Materials and Structures
for Extreme Operating Conditions
Jacek J. Skrzypek · Artur W. Ganczarski
Franco Rustichelli · Halina Egner
Advanced Materials
and Structures for Extreme
Operating Conditions
123
Prof.Dr.JacekJ.Skrzypek Prof.Dr.FrancoRustichelli
Assoc.Prof.Dr.ArturW.Ganczarski
Universta´PolitecnicadellaMarche
Dr.HalinaEgner
Dipto.ScienzeApplicateaiSistemiComplessi
PolitechnikaKrakowska (SASC)
Inst.ofAppliedMechanics ViaBrecceBianche
andMachineDesign 60131Ancona
Al.JanaPawlaII37 Italy
31-864Krakow [email protected]
Poland
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
ISBN 978-3-540-74299-9 e-ISBN 978-3-540-74300-2
DOI10.1007/978-3-540-74300-2
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2007939399
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Introduction
Increasing industrial demands for high temperature applications, high tem-
perature gradients, high heat cycle resistance, high wear resistance, impact
resistance, etc., require application of new materials. Conventional metal-
lic materials, such as steels, nickel- and aluminium-based alloys, etc. can-
not resist such extreme operating conditions. They have to be replaced by
new metal/matrix or ceramic/matrix composite materials, MMC or CMC,
suchastitanium/zirconia,titanium/alumina,nickel/zirconia,nickel/alumina,
steel/chromiumnitride MMCs,or titanium carbide/siliconcarbide,alumina/
zirconiaCMCs,etc.Forinstance,zirconia-basedmaterialsareknownforgood
thermal insulation, but are bad for oxygeninsulation, alumina-based materi-
als are good for oxygeninsulation and relatively good for thermal insulation,
chromium nitride materials are used for good wear resistance due to their
high hardness and not so bad thermal insulation, to mention only some. In
general,aluminium matrix composites havea useable temperature upwardof
300◦C, whereas titanium matrix composites can be safely used up to 800◦C.
For higher temperature applications, up to 2000◦C or even more, ceramic
matrix composites have to be used. In spite of good thermal, wear and anti-
oxygen properties of ceramics, their mechanical properties are rather poor,
mainly due to high brittleness and low toughness resistance.
The first methods to improve thermal, wear, oxygen, etc. resistance of
metallic structures, without suppressing their strength and toughness, con-
sisted in depositing thin layers of appropriate ceramics on the metallic sub-
strate, to produce thermal, wear or oxygen barrier coatings T/W/O BCs.
Thin layer deposition techniques, such as plasma spray deposition and elec-
tronbeamphysicalvapourdeposition,usuallycausehighcompressiveresidual
stresses in thin coating, whereas negligibly low tensile residual stresses occur
in the metallic substrate. The magnitude of compressive residual stress in
the coating depends on the deposition technique, temperature, pressure and
other conditions. High compressive stress in the ceramic coatings, not only
at the initial state but also during the whole loading programme, is desired
for poor ceramic resistance to tensile stress damage and failure.For instance,
VI
in the case of repeated heat pulses, the phenomenon of temperature ratch-
etting may be observed, which may result in a drop in compressive stress
magnitude in the coating, or even produce an inadmissible tensile stress in
the ceramic. Additionally, the severe residual and working stress discontinu-
ityatthe coating–substrateinterfaceusuallycausesdamagetothe coatingor
metallicsubstrate,orfailureduetodelaminationofthe ceramicfilmfromthe
substrate.
Asaremedytotheaforementioneddisadvantagesobservedinthin-layered
structures, a concept of functionally graded materials (FGMs) may be pro-
posed, where a smooth spatial gradationof the materialproperties fromthat
of ceramic to metal, is achieved. In this way a sharp properties mismatch is
eliminated,suchthat stressandstraindiscontinuities canbe mitigatedinthe
structure and both plasticity and damage limitation is met.
Proper modelling of the composite materials, identification of the devel-
oped constitutive models for selected nonhomogeneous materials,application
of the models to complex thermomechanical loading programmes and ini-
tial/boundary value problems, finite differences FD and finite element FE
implementation of the models to existing computer codes, development and
implementationofadvancedmeasurementstechniquesfor stress,damageand
microstructure changes, are the main goals of this book.
Constitutive models have to be capable of capturing combined physical
phenomena, such as thermo-elasticity, plasticity, damage, low cycle fatigue,
thermal ratchetting on heating cycles, thermal fatigue, damage anisotropy,
crack opening/closure, failure due to thermal stability loss, etc.
Numerical methods have to be adjusted to the coupled steady state or
transientthermomechanicalanalysis,including residualstress due to the fab-
ricationphase,materialnonhomogeneity,temperaturedependenceofmaterial
data,localornonlocalapproaches,failurepredictionbydamagefieldanalysis
and the substitutive crack concept, instability due to hot-spots analysis, etc.
Additionally, when the classical finite element method based on the homoge-
neous elements is used for FGMs, the material properties vary from element
toelement,inapiecewisecontinuesfashion,sinceallintegrationpointsinside
theelementhaveacommonpropertyvalue.Thisapproachmaybeinsufficient
inthecaseofseverepropertiesmismatchatthe layer–substrateinterfaceorif
propertieschangethroughafunctionallygradedstructure.Hence,theproblem
of the graded final element to discretize property is also addressed.
Eventually,enhancedexperimentalmethods,essentiallybasedonthescat-
tering of neutrons and X-rays, are developed and implemented for residual
stress, damage and microstructure change analyses in specific functionally
gradedandcompositestructures.Thetechniqueshavetobecapableofdetect-
ingpropertiesnotonlyatthesurface,butalsoatadepthofsomemicrometres
in the substrate material.
This book contains the following:
VII
- survey of advanced material properties for high-temperature applications
(Chapter 1);
- basis of thermodynamic modelling of advanced materials (Chapter 2);
- developmentofselectedconstitutivemodelsofthermo-elasto-plastic-dama-
ge materials (Chapter 3);
- implementation of models for specific composite and functionally graded
applications (Chapter 4);
- methodologyandimplementationofexperimentalmicrostructureanalysis
to real composite and FGMs application (Chapter 5);
- guide to European sources of neutron and X-ray synchrotron radiation
facilities (Appendix).
Itwaspossibletoreachthisobjectivewhenspecialistsinthefieldsofconstitu-
tive modelling of advanced materials, numerical methods and computer sim-
ulations, structural analysis by FDM and FEM, experimental microstructure
and damage analysis and residual stress determination by developed neutron
and X-ray diffraction techniques combined with three–dimensional imaging,
co-operated in the Network of Excellence: Knowledge Based Multicomponent
Materials for DurableandSafePerformanceKMMNoE.Chapters1through4
havebeen writtenby J.Skrzypek,A.GanczarskiandH.Egner(former name
H. Kuna-Ciska(cid:4)l), all from the Cracow University of Technology, Institute of
Applied Mechanics, CUT, Krako´w, Poland. F. Rustichelli from Universita`
Politecnicadelle Marche,SezionediScienze Fisiche,UNIVPM, Ancona,Italy
wrote Chapter 5 and the Appendix.
It is necessary to mention the long list of co-workers and graduate or
PhD students, whose works, papers and master theses were the basis for nu-
merousexamples,computersimulations,experiments,etc.,reportedthrough-
out the book. Among them, within the CUT group, we appreciate the im-
portant impact in the field of constitutive models development and imple-
mentation, as well as computer simulations, by the co-workers: Dr J. Biel-
ski, (CUT), Dr W. Egner (CUT), Dr P. Fory´s (CUT) and L. Barwacz.
Important contribution to the book is also due to the works of PhD stu-
dents and graduate students, obtained when preparing their master theses
at CUT and writing numerous joint papers and conference presentations,
namely: S. Hernik, M. Cegielski, M. Oleksy, M. Kula and M. Juchno. Their
contributions are additionally related to the KMMNoE tasks, in particular:
WPR2 Metal Ceramic Composites, NRT2-2 New Particulate Al and Ti Ma-
trix Composites Produced by Self Propagating High Temperature Synthesis(in
co-operation with INASMET-TECNALIA, Donostia-San Sebastia´n, Spain),
and WPR3 Functionally Graded Materials, NRT3-5 Stress Related Phenom-
ena(inco-operationwithWerkstoff-Kompentenzzentrum-LeobenForschungs-
gesellschaft m.b.H., Leoben, Austria). On the site of UNIVPM the following
researchers, who brought their contribution when writing the book, are ap-
preciated:Prof.Dr G.Albertini, DrV. Calbucci,Dr F.Fiori,Dr E.Girardin,
Dr A. Giuliani, Dr V. Komlev, Dr A. Manescu, Dr F. Spinozzi. Finally, the
VIII
enormous effort made by Prof. A. Ganczarski, who created the whole book-
file in LATEX with the assistanceof D. Skrzypek, who prepareda number of
chapter-files and figures, is gratefully acknowledged.
Jacek Skrzypek, Ancona, August 2007
Acknowledgements
This monograph was supported in part by the EU Network of Excellence
Project KMMNoE, Knowledge-based Multicomponent Materials for Durable
and Safe Performance,No NMP3–CT–2004–502243.
The grantPB807/T07/2003/25fromthe MinistryofScience–StateCommit-
tee for Scientific Research, Poland is gratefully acknowledged.
Contents
Introduction................................................... V
Acknowledgements ............................................VIII
1 Material Properties for High Temperature Applications ... 1
1.1 Technical Demands and Historical Outline.................. 1
1.2 Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Materials for High
Temperature Service ..................................... 3
1.3 Macroscopic (Effective) Properties of Two-Phase Composites.. 11
2 Thermodynamics of Constitutive Modelling of Damaged
Materials .................................................. 13
2.1 Effect of Damage on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties
of Materials............................................. 13
2.1.1 Heat Conduction in Damaged Materials .............. 13
2.1.2 Effect of Damage on the Elastic Stiffness of Materials .. 15
2.2 Thermodynamic Framework for Constitutive Modelling of
Elasto-Plastic-DamageMaterials .......................... 18
2.2.1 State Coupling.................................... 18
2.2.2 Dissipation Coupling............................... 19
2.2.3 State and Dissipation Equations for Elasto-Plasticity
Coupled with Damage ............................. 22
2.2.4 Unilateral Damage Concepts........................ 26
2.2.5 Continuous Damage Deactivation.................... 29
3 Developing and Implementing Selected Constitutive
Models for Elasto-Plastic-Damage Materials ............... 33
3.1 The Constitutive Model of Elastic-Damage Material ......... 33
3.1.1 Incremental Formulation of the Constitutive Equations. 33
XII Contents
3.1.2 Numerical Simulation of Damage and Fracture in
Plane Concrete Structure in the Presence of an Initial
Crack using the Local Approach..................... 40
3.1.3 Nonlocal Formulation of the Constitutive Equations ... 45
3.1.4 Numerical Simulation of the Nonlocal Damage and
Fracture in a Double-Notched Plane-Stress Concrete
Specimen......................................... 49
3.1.5 NumericalSimulationofFractureinaDouble-Notched
Plane-Stress Concrete Specimen by use of the
Nonlocal Equivalent Crack Concept.................. 58
3.2 Constitutive Models of Elasto-Plastic-DamageMaterials...... 61
3.2.1 The Modified Hayakawa–Murakami Constitutive
Model of Thermo-Elasto-Plastic-DamageMaterials .... 61
3.2.2 ApplicationtoMonotonicandCyclicUniaxialLoading
Conditions ....................................... 70
3.2.3 Prediction of Damage and Plastic Evolution in the
Plane notched FCD400 Cast Iron Specimen........... 77
3.2.4 LowCycleFatigueofSpecimenMadeof316LStainless
Steel............................................. 80
3.2.5 Influence of Unilateral Damage on the Yield Potential.. 90
4 Developing and Implementing Constitutive Models for
Specific FGM Applications ................................ 93
4.1 Simulation Methodology for Properties Gradation in FGMs... 93
4.2 Application of the Concept of FGMs to Simple
Thermo–elasto–plasticStructures.......................... 97
4.2.1 Study of CrN/W300 TBC System Under Cyclic
Thermal Loading.................................. 97
4.2.2 Stability Analysis Against the Hot-spots in a FG
Thermo–elastic Brake Disc .........................106
4.2.3 Modelling of FGM Al/ZrO +Y O Engine Pistons ....117
2 2 3
4.3 Developing and Implementing Models of the Coupled
Thermo–elasto–plastic–damageFGMs for Thermomechanical
Applications ............................................134
4.3.1 Extension of the Thermo–elasto–plastic–damage
Model by the FGMs Concept .......................134
4.3.2 Prediction of Damage in the Plane-stress Notched
Specimen by use of FGMs Under Mechanical Loading..140
4.3.3 Analysis of a Problem with the ZrO /FCD400
2
TBC/FGM/S System Under Thermal Loading ........145
5 Microstructural Analysis and Residual Stress
Determination based on Scattering of Neutrons and
X-ray Synchrotron Radiation ..............................151
5.1 Introduction to the Scattering of X-rays and Neutrons .......151
