Table Of ContentPekka Kauppi, Pia Anttilla,
Kaarle Kenttamies
(Eds.)
Acidification
in Finland
With 440 Figures
Springer Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York London
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona
IV
PEKKA KAUPPI
PIA ANTTILA
KAARLE KENTTAMIES
Finnish Acidification Research Programme
P.O. Box 399
Ministry of the Environment
SF-00121 Helsinki, Finland
ISBN- 13 :978-3-642-75452-4 e-ISBN-13 :978-3-642-75450-0
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-75450-0
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Acidification in Finland/P. Kauppi, P. Anttila, K. Kenttiimies, eds. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13:978-3-642-75452-4 (U.S. :alk. paper)
I. Acid deposition - Environmental aspects - Finland. 2. Pollution - Finland. I. Kauppi, P. (Pekka), 1952-
II. Anttila, P. (Pia), 1958- . III. Kenttiimies, K. (Kaarle), 1941-
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Preface
"Acidification in Finland" has been the theme of HAPRO, the Finnish Acidifica
tion Research Programme, in 1985-1990. HAPRO has been a multidisciplinary
programme funded by the Finnish government. Seven universities, eight govern
mental research institutes and numerous expert consultants have taken part in this
work. The objective of the programme has been to contribute to air pollution
abatement and the management of natural resources by obtaining and processing
facts, information and understanding on the so-called acidic precipitation issue. In
practise, the programme has organized surveys of emissions, compiled measure
ments of concentrations and deposition, documented the existing state of Finnish
ecosystems, carried out investigations on cause-and-effect relationships, de
veloped, tested and applied different kinds of models including integrated assess
ment models and supported international exchange of information.
After a short planning phase of the programme, the General Plan for HAPRO
was adopted at the end of 1984. The years 1985 and 1986 can be considered as
the period of establishing the research. Most of the research measurements and
analyses were done in 1987 to 1988 supporting the documentation period in 1989.
HAPRO will come to completion in 1990 with emphasis on assessment and the
exchange of information.
Chapters of this book were first drafted in the spring of 1989. An international
reviewing panel chaired by Dr. Leen Hordijk from the Netherlands met in Helsinki
in June 1989 to examine the manuscripts. In this way the manuscripts passed an
intensive peer review in a relatively short period of time. The manuscripts were
corrected and updated in July-September 1989 and were sent to the publisher.
This book is the summary of the primary results and findings of HAPRO. It
mainly contains original material that has not been published before. The aim has
been that the material and methods are sufficiently documented in each chapter in
order to allow the reader to take a critical look at the results. It is fair to say that
the majority of Finnish research on the acidic precipitation issue in the second half
of the 1980s is included in the chapters of this book. We sincerely thank all
institutes, organizations and people who have taken part in the preparation of this
book. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the scientists - people who have
done the job.
Helsinki, Spring 1990
PEKKA KAUPPI, PIA ANTTILA and KAARLE KENTTAMIES
Contents
Introduction to This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. XllI
1 Air
1.1 Emissions
Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide Emission Scenarios For Finland
I. SAVOLAINEN and M. TAHTINEN ................... .
NO Emissions at the Beginning of the 1980s in Finland
x
J. ANHAVA, H. JAPPINEN and M. PEKKANEN ..... . 21
Ammonia Emissions in the 1980s
R. NISKANEN, S. KERANEN and R. PIPATTI 31
1.2 Atmospheric Processes
On the Effects of Meteorological Factors on Air Pollution Concentrations and
Deposition in Finland
S.M. JOFFRE, T. LAURILA, H. HAKOLA, V. LINDFORS, S. KONTTINEN and P. TAALAS 43
Simulating the Formation of Acid Aerosols
M. KULMALA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Characteristics of Alkaline Emissions, Atmospheric Aerosols and Deposition
P. ANTTILA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
Characteristics of Sulphur Dioxide Monitors: Intercomparison
J. WALDEN, H. LATTILA, M. HYPPONEN, P. PLATHAN and T. VIRTANEN 135
1.3 Deposition
Bulk Deposition Chemistry in Finland
O. JARVINEN and T. VANNI ..... . 151
Model Calculations of Sulphur and Nitrogen Deposition in Finland
J.-P. TUOVINEN, L. KANGAS and G. NORDLUND .......... . 167
Deposition on Forest Soils - Effect of Tree Canopy on Throughfall
A. HYVARINEN ............................. . 199
2 Terrestrial Systems
2.1 Soil Chemistry
Chemical Characteristics of Finnish Agricultural Soils in 1974 and in 1987
R. ERVIO, R. MAKELA-KuRTTO and J. SIPPOLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
VIII Contents
A Survey of Forest Soil Properties Related to Soil Acidification in Southern Finland.
P. TAMMINEN and M. STARR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237
Regional Acidification Model for Forest Soils
M. JOHANSSON and I. SAVOLAINEN ..... . 253
Buffering Capacity of Finnish Soils and its Dependence on Geological Factors in
Relation to the Acidification Sensitivity of Lakes
T. NUOTIO, J. HYYPPA and J. NYLANDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 271
Effects of Acid Deposition on Exchangeable Cations, Acidity and Aluminium Solu-
bility in Forest Soils and Soil Solution
A. NISSINEN and H. ILVESNIEMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 287
Buffering of Peat and Peaty Soils: Evaluation Based on the Artificial Acidification of
Peat Lysimeters
A. PATILA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 305
Effects of Nitrogen Inputs on Forest Ecosystems. Estimation Based on Long-Term
Fertilization Experiments
E. MALK6NEN, J. DEROME and M. KUKKOLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 325
2.2 Soil Microbiology
Microbiological and Chemical Properties of the Forest Humus Layer at Four Sites in
Southern Finland
K. PALMGREN, T. BRENNER and A. VAINIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 351
Soil Biological Parameters as Indicators of Changes in Scots Pine Forests (Pinus
sylvestris L.) Caused by Air Pollution
R. OHTONEN, A.M. MARKKOLA, H. HEINONEN-TANSKI and H. FRITZE. . . . .. 373
2.3 Vegetation and Insects
Epiphytic Lichens on Conifers in the 1960's to 1980's in Finland
M. KUUSINEN, K. MIKKOLA and E.-L. JUKOLA-SULONEN .... 397
A Survey of Element Concentrations in the Epiphytic Lichen Hypogymnia physodes
in Finland in 1985-1986
E. KUBIN ........................ . 421
Air Pollution Levels and Abundance of Forest Insects
K. HEU6vAARA and R. VAISANEN .......... . 447
Effects of Simulated Acid Rain on the Susceptibility to Sc1eroderis canker (Ascocalyx
abietina (Lagerb.) Sc1iipher-Bernhard) and on Assimilation and Transpiration of
Scots Pine Seedlings
M. VUORINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 469
Ecological Effects of Simulated Acid Rain in a Subarctic Area with Low Ambient
Sulphur Deposition
S. NEUVONEN, J. SUOMELA, E. HAUKIOJA, M. LINDGREN and KAI RUOHOMAKI 477
Influence of Acidification on Metal Uptake in Plants
M. LODENIVS and J. MALM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 495
2.4 Trees
Detecting Forest Growth Responses to Environmental Changes - a Review of
Finnish Studies
P. N6JD ..... 507
Contents IX
The Vitality of Conifers in Finland 1986-1988
E.-L. JUKOLA-SULONEN, K. MIKKOLA and M. SALEMAA 523
The Occurrence of Abiotic and Biotic Damage and its Relation to Defoliation
(Needle Loss) of Conifers in Finland (1985-1988)
S. NEVALAINEN and H. YLI-KoJOLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 561
An Approach to Analyse the Dynamics of Environmental Change and its Effects on
Forest Growth
P. HARI, M. HOLMBERG, T. RAUNEMAA and E. NIKINMAA . . . . . . . . . . . .. 583
Wintering Response of Conifers to Acid Rain Treatment Under Northern Conditions
S. HUTTUNEN, J. REINIKAINEN and M. TURUNEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 607
Effects of High Nitrogen Deposition on Forests: Case Studies Close to Fur Animal
Farms
A. FERM, J. HYTONEN, P. LAHDESMAKI, P. PIETILAINEN and A. PATILA 635
Causes of Conifer Injuries in Some Industrial Environments
A. WULFF, L. ROPPONEN and L. KARENLAMPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Needle Retention, Age, Shedding and Budget, and Growth of Scots Pine Between
1865 and 1988
R. JALKANEN and T. KURKELA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
The Foliar Chemical Composition of Young Pines (Pinus sylvestris L.) with or
without Decline
H. RAITIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 699
The Effects of Soluble Inorganic Aluminium and Nutrient Imbalances on Pinus
sylvestris and Picea abies Seedlings
H: AROVAARA and H. ILVESNIEMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 715
2.5 Materials
Effects of SOlon Construction Materials: Preliminary Results
T.K. KAUNISTO, E.1. HAKKA-RoNNHOLM, T.J. HAKKARAINEN, H.S. Pyyand
K.J. SILVENNOINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
3 Water
3.1 Aquatic Chemistry
Statistical Lake Survey in Finland: Regional Estimates of Lake Acidification
M. FORSIUS, J. KAMARI, P. KORTELAINEN, J. MANNIO, M. VERTA, and
K. KINNUNEN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Modelling Long-Term Development of Surface Water Acidification in Finland
J. KAMARI, M. FORSIUS and A. LEPISTO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Ion Budgets of Small Forested Basins
K. KALLIO and L. KAUPPI . . . . . . . . 811
Hydrological Characteristics Affecting the Runoff Water Acidity
A. LEPISTO and P. SEUNA ..................... . 825
Organic Acidity in Finnish Lakes
P. KORTELAINEN and J. MANNIO 849
Effects of Air Pollutants on Chemical Characteristics of Soil Water and Groundwater
J. SOVERI and T. AHLBERG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 865
x Contents
Trace Metals in Finnish Headwater Lakes - Effects of Acidification and Airborne
Load
M. VERTA, J. MANNIO, P. IIVONEN, J.-P. HIRVI, O. JARVINEN and S. PIEPPONEN 883
3.2 Biota in Lakes and Streams
Acid-Induced Changes in Fish Populations of Small Finnish Lakes
M. RASK and P. TUUNAINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
Respiratory Effects of Environmental Acidification in Perch (Perea f1uviatilis) and
Rainbow Trout (Salrno gairdnerz)
M. NIKINMAA, A. SALAMA and H. TUURALA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 929
Long-Term Exposure of Adult Whitefish (Coregonus wartrnanni) to Low
pHIA luminium: Effects on Reproduction, Growth, Blood Composition and Gills
P.J. VUORINEN, M. VUORINEN and S. PEURANEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 941
Macrophytes in Finnish Forest Lakes and Possible Effects of Airborne Acidification
L. HEITIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 963
Phytoplankton and Acidification in Small Forest Lakes in Finland
P. KIPpo-EDLUND and A. HEITTO ................. . 973
Periphytic Diatoms in the Acidification Project Lakes
P. ELORANTA ...................... . 985
Surface Sediment Diatom Assemblages and Lake Acidity
P. HUTTUNEN and J. TURKIA ............... . 995
Crustacean Zooplankton of Finnish Forest Lakes in Relation to Acidity and
Other Environmental Factors
J. SARVALA and S. HALSINAHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
Benthic Invertebrates in Relation to Acidity in Finnish Forest Lakes
J.J. MERILAINEN and J. HYNYNEN .................. . 1029
Estimation of Acidity in Streams by Means of Benthic Invertebrates:
Evaluation of Two Methods
H. HAMALAINEN and P. HUTTUNEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 1051
Palaeoecological Evaluation of the Recent Acidification of Susceptible Lakes
in Finland
P. HUTIUNEN, K. KENTTAMIES, A. LIEHu, M. LIUKKONEN, T. NUOTIo,
O. SANDMAN and J. TURKIA .............................. 1071
4 Liming
Alleviation of Forest Soil Acidification Through Liming
J. DEROME and A. PATILA ............... . 1093
Neutralization of Acidified Watercourses
E. ALASAARELA, J. HAVU, K. HEIKKINEN and K. WEPPLING 1117
Liming of the Acidic Lake Valkealampi in Eastern Finland: Effects on Water
Chemistry and Phytoplankton
R. NIINIOJA, M. AHTIAINEN, and A.-L. HOLOPAINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
Effects of Liming on the Chemistry and Biology of a Small Acid Humic Lake
K. SALONEN, M. JARVINEN, K. KUOPPAMAKI and L. ARVOLA . . . . . . . . . 1145
Contents Xl
5 Secondary Effects and Assessment
Development of an Integrated Model for the Assessment of Acidification in Finland
M. JOHANSSON, 1. KAMARI, R. PIPATTI, I. SAVOLAINEN, I.-P. TUOVINEN and
M. TAHTINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
Evaluation of Finnish Sulphur Reduction Strategies for the Year 1995
M. HONGISTO and M. WALLIN ............................. 1195
Amount, Quality and Utilization of Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) Wastes in
Finland
1. RANTA .............................' . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
Economic Impacts of Western European Air Pollution on the Finnish Forest Sector
H. SEPPALA, R. SEPPALA and M. KALLIO ....................... 1217
Introduction to This Book
Finnish ecosystems are sensitive to pollution damage because of the harsh climate
and the scarcity of species. Pollution damage would have a large impact on
Finland, because the character of the Finnish landscape and the national economy
are heavily based on natural and seminatural ecosystems, in particular, forests and
lakes and streams.
Finland like all countries would prefer to act in favour of environmental
protection rather than to let damage occur and try to repair it thereafter. The
country cannot afford losing the production capacity of forests even if the forests
could later be revitalized. Trees are grown at rotations between 70 to 160 years.
Productivity has to be maintained all the time. An interruption, that is a massive
forest decline, would involve enormous costs.
Protection approach has guided HAPRO research. The programme has aimed
at assessing future scenarios and trends. Monitoring the past has been a necessary
element of research but only in the sense that it sets the footings for assessments of
the future. Surveys and inventories have described the base-line conditions. Ex
periments have clarified cause-and-effect relationships. Results have been incor
porated into assessment models.
The reports of this book have been organized in five main sections. Section 1
describes emissions, atmospheric processes and deposition. Section 2 deals with
terrestrial environments and includes reports on soil chemistry, soil microbiology,
vegetation and insects, trees and materials effects. Section 3 is the water part
including reports on water chemistry and on biota in lakes and streams. Sections 4
and 5 are devoted to liming, and to secondary effects and assessment, respectively.
Sections 1 to 3 are organized in a similar way so that they begin with
monitoring and survey reports. Then they continue with reports on models and
experimental results. Sections 4 and 5 deal with the scientific background of
ecosystem revitalization and pollution abatement. They include reports on second
ary effects such as the waste production of flue gas desulphurization and the
potential economic reflections of forest damage abroad through the international
trade of forest products.
Emissions into the atmosphere are described first. In the 1950's and 1960's
sulphur emissions grew substantially, as a matter of fact faster in Finland than in
many other countries. Then the emissions peaked in the mid-1970's and have
declined since. This decline will continue at a rate that depends on abatement
