Table Of ContentAdvances in Environmental Science
D.C. Adriano and W. Salomons, Editors
Editorial Board:
Series Editors:
D.e. Adriano w. Salomons
University of Georgia's Savannah Delft Hydraulics Laboratory
River Ecology Laboratory Institute for Soil Fertility
P.O. Box E P.O. Box 30003
Aiken, South Carolina 2980 I NL-9750 RA Haren (GR)
USA The Netherlands
D.e. Adriano, Coordinating Editor
Associate Editors:
B.L. Bayne, Institute for Marine Environmental Research, Plymouth
PLl 3DH, UK
M. Chino, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113, Japan
AA Elseewi, Southern California Edison, Rosemead, CA 91770, USA
M. Firestone, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
U. Forstner, Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg, 2100 Hamburg
90, FRG
B.T. Hart, Chisholm Institute of Technology, Victoria 3145, Australia
T.e. Hutchinson, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S lA4, Canada
S.E. Lindberg, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831,
USA
M.R. Overcash, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27650, USA
AL. Page, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
Acidic Precipitation
Volume 3
Sources, Deposition, and
Canopy Interactions
Edited by S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page, and S.A. Norton
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg
London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
Volume Editors:
S.E. Lindberg A.L. Page
Environmental Sciences Division Depanment of Soil and
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Environmental Sciences
P.O. Box 2008 University of California
Oak Ridge, TN 37831 Riverside, CA 92521
USA USA
S.A. Nonon
Depanrnenl of Geological Sciences
University of Maine
Orono, ME 04469
USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Acidic pre<:ipitation.
(Advances in environmental science)
Bibliography: v. I, p.
Incl udes indelt.
ContenlS: v. I. Case studies/volume editors,
D.C. Adriano and M. Havas- v. 2. Biological and
ecological effects/D.C. Adriano and A.H. Johnson,
editol'5-v. 3. Sources, deposition, and canopy interactions/S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page. and SA
Nonon. editors.
I. Series.
TD 19.5.42.A25 1989 363.7'386 88-37418
Printed on acid-free paper.
0 1990 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1990
Copyright not claimed for works by U.s. Govemment employees.
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in pan without the
written permission oft~ publisher (Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010,
USA), eltcept forbrief eltcerpls in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection
with any form of information storage and retrieval,e1eClI'onic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the
former are nOI especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by
the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.
Typeset by McFarland Graphics and Design, Dillsburg, Pennsylvania.
987654)21
ISBN-lJ: 978-1-4612-8781-0 e-ISBN-I3: 978-1-4612-4454-7
DOl: 10. 10071978- 1-4612-4454-7
Preface to the Series
In 1986, my colleague Prof. Dr. W. Salomons of the Institute for Soil Fertility of
the Netherlands and I launched the new Advances in Environmental Science
with Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Immediately, we were faced with a task
of what topics to cover. Our strategy was to adopt a thematic approach to
address hotly debated contemporary environmental issues. After consulting
with numerous colleagues from Western Europe and North America, we
decided to address Acidic Precipitation, which we view as one of the most
controversial issues today.
This is the subject of the first five volumes of the new series, which cover
relationships among emissions, deposition, and biological and ecological
effects of acidic constituents. International experts from Canada, the United
States, Western Europe, as well as from several industrialized countries in other
regions, have generously contributed to this subseries, which is grouped into the
following five volumes:
Volume 1 Case Studies
(D.C. Adriano and M. Havas, editors)
Volume 2 Biological and Ecological Effects
(D.C. Adriano and A.H. Johnson, editors)
Volume 3 Sources, Deposition, and Canopy Interactions
(S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page, and S.A. Norton, editors)
Volume 4 Soils, Aquatic Processes, and Lake Acidification
(S.A. Norton, S.E. Lindberg, and A.L. Page, editors)
Volume 5 International Overview and Assessment
(T. Bresser and W. Salomons, editors)
From the vast amount of consequential information discussed in this series, it
will become apparent that acidic deposition should be seriously addressed by
many countries of the world, in as much as severe damages have already been
inflicted on numerous ecosystems. Furthermore, acidic constituents have also
been shown to affect the integrity of structures of great historical values in
vi Series Preface
various places of the world. Thus, it is hoped that this up-to-date sub series
would increase the "awareness" of the world's citizens and encourage
governments to devote more attention and resources to address this issue.
The series editors thank the international panel of contributors for bringing
this timely series into completion. We also wish to acknowledge the very
insightful input of the following colleagues: Prof. A.L. Page of the University of
California, Prof. T.e. Hutchinson of the University of Toronto, and Dr. Steve
Lindberg of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
We also wish to thank the superb effort and cooperation of the volume
editors in handling their respective volumes. The constructive criticisms of
chapter reviewers also deserve much appreciation. Finally, we wish to convey
our appreciation to my secretary, Ms. Brenda Rosier, and my technician, Ms.
Claire Carlson, for their very able assistance in various aspects of this series.
Aiken, South Carolina Domy C. Adriano
Coordinating Editor
Preface to Acidic Precipitation, Volume 3
(Advances in Environmental Science)
As a result of pioneering research in the 1960s and because of the real and
perceived environmental effects described during the ensuing years, the term
acidic precipitation has become commonplace in scientific and popular
literature. In the last decade, governments throughout the world have
responded to public pressure and to the concerns of the scientific community by
establishing research programs on national and international scales. These
programs have been designed to improve our understanding of the important
links between atmospheric emissions and their potential environmental effects
in both industrialized and developing nations. Acidic precipitation was studied
initially because of its effects on aquatic systems. However, because reports
from Western Europe in the early 1980s suggested a link with forest decline,
acidic precipitation is now considered a potential environmental stress in
terrestrial systems as well as in aquatic systems.
As has been the case with many environmental issues of the twentieth
century, acidic precipitation has its origin in emissions to the atmosphere of
numerous compounds from both natural and man-made sources. This volume,
the third in the series Advances in Environmental Science: Acidic Precipitation,
emphasizes the atmospheric aspects of acidic precipitation and all that this
term has come to include (e.g., toxic gases such as ozone, trace metals,
aluminum, and oxides of nitrogen). It progresses from emissions of the
precursors of acidic precipitation to their eventual deposition on environmental
surfaces.
The chapters in this volume describe the sources of acidic and basic airborne
substances, their interactions in the atmosphere and with rain droplets, and their
reactions with other airborne constituents such as aluminum and other metals.
Also discussed are the use of metals as tracers of sources of the precursors of
acidic precipitation and as tracers of historical deposition rates, the processes
controlling the removal of airborne material as dry deposition and deposition
interactions with the forest canopy, and past and future trends in atmospheric
emissions and options for their abatement. With the National Acidic
Precipitation Assessment Program of the United States nearing the 1990
completion date, and with the programs of Canada and many European
viii Preface
countries accelerating to reach a consensus on the role that atmospheric
emissions and acidic precipitation play in the environment, publication of this
series is timely.
The editors thank the contributors to this volume for their efforts in
describing a wide array of atmospheric topics, all of which are important to an
understanding of the acidic precipitation issue.
Oak Ridge, Tennessee Steven E Lindberg
Riverside, California Albert L. Page
Orono, Maine Stephen A. Norton
Contents
Series Preface .................................................... v
Preface... ....... ...... ..... ... .. ............................... .. vii
Contributors ..................................................... xiii
Sources of Acids, Bases, and Their Precursors in the Atmosphere . . . 1
Roger L. Tanner
I. Introduction and Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. Sources of Acids ............................................... 3
III. Sources of Acid-Neutralizing Substances (Bases) ................... 9
IV. Distribution of Atmospheric Acids and Bases ...................... 10
V. Gas-Aerosol Equilibria and Boundary Layer Mixing ................ 14
VI. Summary of Significant Acid-Formation Pathways.............. . .. . 15
References ................................•................... 17
Aerosol Sulfur Association with Aluminum in Eastern
North America: Evidence for Solubilization of
Atmospheric Trace Metals before Deposition ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
John W. Winchester
I. Statement of the Problem ....................................... 21
II. Approach to the Problem ....................................... 23
III. Results ....................................................... 25
IV. Discussion .................................................... 45
References .................................................... 48
Source-Receptor Relationships for Atmospheric
Trace Elements in Europe ........................................ 49
Joze! M Pacyna
I. Introduction ................................................... 49
II. Emission Patterns of Atmospheric Trace Elements in Europe ......... 50
III. Long-Range Transport Models for Trace Elements in Europe ........ 53
IV. Application of Statistical Methods in Source-Receptor Studies ........ 62
x Contents
V. Recommendations for Further Research 68
References ................................................... . 69
The History of Atmospheric Deposition of Cd, Hg, and Pb in North
America: Evidence from Lake and Peat Bog Sediments ............ . 73
Stephen A. Norton, Peter 1. Dillon, R Douglas Evans, Gregory Mierle,
and Jeffrey S. Kahl
I. Introduction .................................................. . 74
II. Methods ..................................................... . 76
III. Results ...................................................... . 79
IV. Summary .................................................... . 96
References ................................................... . 97
Dry Deposition of Particles and Vapors ........................... . 103
Cliff l Davidson and Yee-Un Wu
I. Introduction .................................................. . 103
II. The Process of Dry Deposition ................................. .. 108
III. Wind Tunnel Studies and Semiempirical Models ................... . 128
IV. Measurement Methods ......................................... . 152
V. Dry Deposition Data and Comparison with Model Predictions ....... . 170
VI. Summary .................................................... . 208
References ................................................... . 209
Dry Deposition of Sulfur and Nitrogen
Oxide Gases to Forest Vegetation ................................. . 217
c.e Murphy, Jr., and J. T. Sigmon
I. Introduction .................................................. . 217
II. Mechanisms of Dry Deposition of Gases ......................... . 220
III. Experimental Measurement of Deposition ........................ . 231
IV. Results of Measurements of Deposition .......................... . 233
V. Dry Deposition and the Response of Forests ...................... . 237
References ................................................... . 238
Throughfall Chemistry and Canopy Processing Mechanisms ........ 241
Douglas A. Schaefer and William A. Reiners
I. Introduction ................................................... 241
II. Processes That Control Throughfall Chemistry ..................... 243
III. Hypothesized and Observed Throughfall Fluxes .................... 260
IV. Future Research ............................................... 268
Appendix: Sequential Throughfall Sampling Methods. ...... ......... 276
References .................................................... 278
