Table Of ContentA Text book of Public Health Research
Methodology
Meera Tandan , Janak Thapa
Table of Contents
Chapter I: Basic concept on research ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Concept of Research: ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Purpose of research: ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Objectives of Research: ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Characteristics of a research: ............................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Significance of research: ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Types of Research: .................................................................................................................................... 2
1.7 Basic research: ............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.8 Applied research: ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.9 Descriptive research: ............................................................................................................................... 3
1.10 Analytical Research: .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.11 Quantitative Research: ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.12 Qualitative Research: ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.13 Conceptual research: ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.14 Empirical research: ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.15 Historical Research: ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.16 Ethnographic Research: ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.17 Survey Research: ..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.18 Co-relational Research: ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.19 Approach on research: .......................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter II: Research process ............................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Steps on research process ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Criteria in selecting a good research problem: .............................................................................. 7
2.3 Characteristics of a Good research Question: ................................................................................. 8
2.4 Criteria for Prioritizing Problems in Research: ............................................................................. 9
2.5 Analyzing the Problem: ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.6 Deciding on the Focus and Scope of the Research: ................................................................... 11
2.7 Main purposes of literature review: ............................................................................................... 12
2.8 Formulate the problem statement: ................................................................................................. 12
Chapter III: Hypothesis .................................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Formulation of Research Objectives/Hypothesis: ..................................................................... 13
3.2 Research objectives: .............................................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Purpose of developing research objectives are: ......................................................................... 14
3.4 Types of hypothesis:.............................................................................................................................. 14
Chapter IV: Variables and Scales of Measurements: ............................................................................ 15
4.1 Variables .................................................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Why variables?: ....................................................................................................................................... 15
4.3 Classification of Variables: .................................................................................................................. 15
4.4 Scales of measurement: ....................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter V: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES .................................................................................................. 18
5.1 Case Study ................................................................................................................................................. 18
5.2 Case series ................................................................................................................................................ 18
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5.3 Descriptive Study ................................................................................................................................... 18
5.4 Steps of descriptive study ................................................................................................................... 19
5.5 Measurement of disease: ..................................................................................................................... 23
5.6 Different between cross sectional and longitudinal study: ................................................... 24
Chapter VI: Research Methodology ............................................................................................................. 25
6.1 Sampling: ................................................................................................................................................... 25
6.2 Target population ................................................................................................................................... 25
6.3 Sampling frame: ...................................................................................................................................... 25
6.4 Qualities of sampling frame................................................................................................................ 25
6.5 Sampling unit: .......................................................................................................................................... 25
6.6 Types of Sampling .................................................................................................................................. 25
6.7 Sample size determination: ................................................................................................................ 25
6.8 CENSUS:...................................................................................................................................................... 26
6.8 Uses of census: ......................................................................................................................................... 27
6.9 Method of data Collection: .................................................................................................................. 27
6.10 QUESTIONNAIRE: ................................................................................................................................ 29
6.11 QUESTION STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter VII: Steps of Proposal writing ...................................................................................................... 32
Figure 1: E.g of confounding Variables ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2: Flow chart of tsudy design .......................................................................................................... 18
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Chapter I: Basic concept on research
1.1 Concept of Research: The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search
re - a prefix meaning again, anew or over again
search - a verb meaning to examine carefully and closely, to test and try, or to
probe .
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
(Grinnell; 1993)
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.
(Burns; 1997)
Social science define as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art”. Research is the process of systematically
obtaining accurate answers to significant and pertinent questions by the use of the
scientific method of gathering and interpreting information.
Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, it is way of
thinking. Examining critically the various aspects of your day to day professional work.
Understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure
developing and testing new theories that contribute to advancement of your practice
and profession.
1.2 Purpose of research:
• Public health research – for providing tool for prevention of disease
• Clinical research – for improving t/t of disease
• Operations research – for examine the effectiveness of implemented activities
1.3 Objectives of Research:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights
• To describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual or group
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
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1.4 Characteristics of a research:
• It demands a clear statement of the problem
• It requires a plan
• It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings
• New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they
answer the original research question.
1.5 Significance of research:
• Research is necessary to describe its state of affairs, to collect information and to
identify appropriate solution of the problems and to develop standard guidelines for
action
• Research is a toll for evaluating past achievements and to bring new changes
• Research is essential to identify the body of knowledge in any health science
practice and to attain professional maturity
• Research provides basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system
• Research has its special significance solving various operational and planning
problems
• Research is equally important for social scientist in studying social relationship and
in seeking or answer to various problems
• The main goal of research to provide a basis for decision making at all levels of
profession the other reason being development of theories related to concerned
subject
1.6 Types of Research:
• Fundamental (basic) vs. Applied (Action)
• Descriptive vs. analytical
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Conceptual vs. Empirical ( Experimental)
• Others
• Historical Research
• Ethnographic Research
• Survey Research
• Co-relational Research
• Operational Research
• Longitudinal
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1.7 Basic research:
It is carried out to generate new knowledge, theories (new or refinement) and technologies
to deal with major unresolved health problems.
E.g. basic research are carried out especially in the laboratory on animals and in vitro
situations on tissue, cells and on biological fluids and some in the field.
1.8 Applied research:
Information acquired from the basic research are applied to treatment or diagnosis of the
disease.
Applied research is to establish new knowledge and result can be applied to practical setting.
Examples:
Development of methods and models.
Clinical trial and field trials
1.9 Descriptive research: Includes surveys and facts finding enquiries of different kinds.
Major purpose - description of the state of interaction as it exist at present. Main
characteristics- the researcher has no control over the variables, he can report only what has
happened and or is happening
• E.g. Survey methods of all kinds
1.10 Analytical Research:
Researcher use already available facts or information, and analyze them to make a critical
evaluation. Also called comparative study. Includes: Causal, experimental and content
analysis
e.g. Case control study
1.11 Quantitative Research:
Based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Applicable to phenomenon that can be
expressed in terms of quantity
e.g, surveys, census,
1.12 Qualitative Research:
Concerned with qualitative phenomenon. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desire using in-depth interview of the purpose. They are especially
important in behavioral science.
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1.13 Conceptual research:
Related to some abstract ideas or theory. Generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concept or to reinterpret existing ones.
1.14 Empirical research:
It relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
It is data based research, coming up with conclusion which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiments. Also called as experimental type of research
1.15 Historical Research:
It is to determine the nature of casual relationships among variables at some point in the
past. Historians consequently must infer casual relationships among variables by
interpreting various written documents or other of past events.
1.16 Ethnographic Research:
It is a form of descriptive research that relies heavily on qualitative methods largely
developed by anthropologists and sociologists. The purpose of ethnographic research is to
provide a rich, detailed verbal description of herd members of a culture perceive the culture.
Ethnographic researches carryout their studies in natural settings primarily by means of
participant observation and interviewing. Participant observation is a technique used by
ethnographic researchers that entails simultaneously participating in group activities and
observing what is occurring in the group.
1.17 Survey Research:
This is also form of descriptive research. This describes how values of variables are
distributed among the various groups of people.
• E.g KAP study
1.18 Co-relational Research:
This examines the relationship between two or more variables for a single group of people
1.19 Approach on research:
1. Quantitative approach
a. Inferential approach
- To form data base from which we assume characteristics of a population
b. Experimental approach
- Some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables
c. Simulation approach
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- Construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and
data can be generated.
2. Qualitative approach
- Subjective assessment of attitudes, opinion and behavior
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Chapter II: Research process
2.1 Steps on research process
1. Problem Identification/ selection of the problem
Problem situation depends on three conditions:
- Perceived difference or discrepancy between what exits and the ideal or planned
situation
- The reasons for this difference should be unclear (so that it makes sense to develop a
research question)
- There should be more than one possible answer to the question or solution to the
problem
Example: Problem situation:
Let us take a VDC A, with a population of 100,000 .Only 5% of house hold have latrine
The VDC monthly reports indicate that hepatitis, gastroenteritis and worm infestation are
very common. Accordingly the target of National Health Plan, the number of household with
sanitary latrines are to increase by 15% each year. Thus after two years, 35% of household
should have sanitary latrine.
Gap
Data after two years of implementing NHP shows that only 15% of the household do have
sanitary latrine.
2. Review the Literature:
The purpose of conducting research is to "fill in the gaps" of our knowledge about a
particular field or subject, to identify a new problem, or to "test" a new solution or
recommendation for an existing issue or phenomenon.
To frame your research project, and to ensure that your research question has not
already been examined, you must conduct a literature review.
3. Formulate a Hypothesis or a Problem Statement:
Depending on your research question and methodology, you will be required to formulate
a research hypothesis or a problem statement based on your research question.
A research hypothesis is an educated prediction that provides an explanation for an
observable (measurable) event or condition. Learn more about how to develop a research
hypothesis. A problem statement is both a reiteration of the problem that the study will
address and the justification for studying the problem
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4. Select a Research Design:
Deciding what you will research will help to determine how you will design your
research project. Will it be qualitative or quantitative? What methodology and design
will you choose? What methods - techniques and tools - will you use to collect,
analyze, and interpret your data?
5. Carry Out the Research:
How you can finally conduct your research!
For many, this is the most enjoyable part of the process; but, it's also the step that requires
the greatest attention to detail to ensure that your research design and methods are followed
accurately - to generate good data - and that the research is conducted ethically.
6. Interpret Your Results:
Once your experiment has concluded and/or data have been collected, it is time to analyze
the data using methods determined by your research methodology and design. Next, you
must interpret the results.
It is important that your interpretation is supported by the evidence. Avoid spurious
conclusions of causality or correlation.
7. Report the Research Findings:
The purpose of research is to share knowledge.
Once your research has concluded, it is important to share your results. You might write an
article for publication, prepare a white paper, or present your research at a conference either
as part of a panel discussion or a poster presentation.
8. Repeat:
Research is an iterative process. New knowledge leads to more questions, further
research, and the generation of more new knowledge. So, return to Step 1 and enjoy
a new research experience.
2.2 Criteria in selecting a good research problem:
i)Topic of research selected should be within the range your resources and time
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