Table Of ContentAQA
A-Level
Chemistry
Exam Board: AQA
☻
Student Book
The Complete A-Level Course for AQA
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A-Level
Chemistry
The Complete Course for AQA
Like a heavy fraction of crude oil, A-Level Chemistry is difficult to crack.
But don’t worry — this CGP book will help you put in a high-octane
performance all the way through the AQA course!
It’s packed with clear explanations, exam practice, advice on maths skills
and practical investigations... everything you need, basically.
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Contents
Introduction 4. Shapes of Molecules 86
5. Polarisation 92
How to use this book i 6. Intermolecular Forces 94
7. Metallic Bonding 100
Practical Skills PRACTICAL 8. Properties of Metals 101
SKILLS
Exam-style Questions 105
1. Planning Experiments 1
Section 4: Energetics
2. Working Safely 4
1. Enthalpy 108
3. Practical Techniques 6
2. Bond Enthalpies 109
4. Data 10
3. Measuring Enthalpy Changes 112
5. Analysing Results 13
4. Hess’s Law 116
6. Evaluations and Errors 15
Exam-style Questions 120
7. The Practical Endorsement 18
Section 5: Kinetics
Unit 1
1. Reaction Rates 122
2. Catalysts 125
Section 1: Atomic Structure
3. Measuring Reaction Rates 127
1. The Atom 20
Exam-style Questions 131
2. Atomic Models 23
3. Relative Mass 25 Section 6: Equilibria and
4. The Mass Spectrometer 27 Redox Reactions
5. Using Mass Spectra 30
1. Reversible Reactions 133
6. Electronic Structure 33
2. Industrial Processes 137
7. Ionisation Energies 37
3. The Equilibrium Constant 138
Exam-style Questions 43
4. Factors Affecting the Equilibrium Constant 141
5. Redox Reactions 143
Section 2: Amount of Substance
6. Redox Equations 147
1. The Mole 46
Exam-style Questions 150
2. Gases and the Mole 50
3. Chemical Equations 52
Unit 2
4. Equations and Calculations 54
5. Titrations 57
Section 1: Periodicity
6. Formulas 62
1. The Periodic Table 153
7. Chemical Yield 66
2. Periodicity 156
8. Atom Economy 69
Exam-style Questions 159
Exam-style Questions 73
Section 2: Group 2 and
Section 3: Bonding
Group 7 Elements
1. Ionic Bonding 76
1. Group 2 — The Alkaline Earth Metals 160
2. Covalent Bonding 81
2. Group 2 Compounds 163
3. Charge Clouds 85
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3. Group 7 — The Halogens 166
Unit 4
4. Halide Ions 170
5. Tests for Ions 173 Section 1: Thermodynamics
Exam-style Questions 176 1. Enthalpy Changes 264
2. Born-Haber Cycles 267
Unit 3 3. Enthalpies of Solution 272
4. Entropy 274
Section 1: Introduction to
5. Free-Energy Change 277
Organic Chemistry
Exam-style Questions 282
Organic Chemistry 179
Section 2: Rate Equations and K
1. Formulas 180
p
2. Functional Groups 184 1. Monitoring Reactions 286
3. Nomenclature 188 2. Reaction Rates and Graphs 291
4. Mechanisms 192 3. Rate Equations 294
5. Isomers 193 4. The Initial Rates Method 298
6. E/Z Isomers 196 5. Clock Reactions 302
Exam-style Questions 200 6. Rate-concentration Graphs 304
7. The Rate-determining Step 306
Section 2: Alkanes and
8. The Arrhenius Equation 308
Halogenoalkanes
9. Gas Equilibria 313
1. Alkanes and Petroleum 203
10. Changing Gas Equilibria 317
2. Alkanes as Fuels 206
Exam-style Questions 320
3. Synthesis of Chloroalkanes 208
4. Halogenoalkanes 211 Section 3: Electrode Potentials
5. Nucleophilic Substitution 212 and Cells
6. Elimination Reactions 217 1. Electrode Potentials 323
Exam-style Questions 220 2. Standard Electrode Potentials 328
3. Electrochemical Series 330
Section 3: Alkenes and Alcohols
4. Electrochemical Cells 334
1. Alkenes 222
Exam-style Questions 338
2. Reactions of Alkenes 226
3. Addition Polymers 229 Section 4: Acids, Bases and pH
4. Alcohols 233 1. Acids, Bases and K 341
w
5. Dehydrating Alcohols 235 2. pH Calculations 343
6. Ethanol Production 238 3. The Acid Dissociation Constant 346
7. Oxidising Alcohols 242 4. Titrations and pH Curves 350
Exam-style Questions 247 5. Titration Calculations 354
6. Buffer Action 358
Section 4: Organic Analysis
7. Calculating the pH of Buffers 361
1. Tests for Functional Groups 250
Exam-style Questions 365
2. Mass Spectrometry 254
3. Infrared Spectroscopy 256
Exam-style Questions 260
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Section 3: Polymers
Unit 5
1. Condensation Polymerisation 464
Section 1: Period 3 Elements 2. Monomers & Repeating Units 468
1. Period 3 Elements 368 3. Disposing of Polymers 472
2. Period 3 Oxides 370 Exam-style Questions 475
Exam-style Questions 373
Section 4: Amino Acids, Proteins
Section 2: Transition Metals and DNA
1. Transition Metals — The Basics 374 1. Amino Acids 476
2. Complex Ions 378 2. Proteins 479
3. Isomerism in Complex Ions 382 3. Enzymes 483
4. Formation of Coloured Ions 384 4. DNA 485
5. Ligand Substitution Reactions 388 5. Cisplatin 489
6. Variable Oxidation States 393 Exam-style Questions 492
7. Transition Metal Titrations 396
Section 5: Further Synthesis
8. Transition Metal Catalysts 399
and Analysis
9. Metal-Aqua Ions 403
1. Organic Synthesis 494
Exam-style Questions 410
2. NMR Spectroscopy 498
3. 13C NMR Spectroscopy 500
Unit 6 4. 1H NMR Spectroscopy 504
5. Chromatography 509
Section 1: Isomerism and
6. Gas Chromatography 513
Carbonyl Compounds
Exam-style Questions 517
1. Optical Isomerism 414
2. Aldehydes and Ketones 418
Maths Skills MATHS
SKILLS
3. Hydroxynitriles 422
4. Carboxylic Acids and Esters 425 1. Exam Technique 519
5. Reactions and Uses of Esters 428 2. Formulas and Equations 522
6. Acyl Chlorides 432 3. Units 526
7. Acid Anhydrides 435 4. Powers and Logarithms 528
8. Purifying Organic Compounds 437 5. Graphs 530
Exam-style Questions 442
Exam Help EXAM
HELP
Section 2: Aromatic Compounds
and Amines 1. Exam Structure and Technique 532
2. Diagrams 535
1. Aromatic Compounds 446
3. The Periodic Table — Facts and Trends 537
2. Reactions of Aromatics 450
3. Amines and Amides 453
Reference
4. Reactions of Amines 457
Exam-style Questions 462
Answers 538
Glossary 595
Acknowledgements 605
Index 607
The Periodic Table 612
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How to use this book
Learning Objectives Learning Objectives: 2. Standard Electrode Potentials
These tell you exactly what you need to Kowfnh toehwne mcthoeena dismuitripoinongrst a thnec e ESloe cift ryoodue wpaontet ntoti aclos marpea irnefl euleencctreodd be yp tohtienngtsia llisk,e t hteemy pneereadt utore b aen sdt apnrdesasrudriese. d .
electrode potential, E. This is done using a standard hydrogen electrode.
learn, or be able to do, for your exams. Understand how cells
aerleec utrsoedde t op omteenatsiuarlse Factors affecting the electrode potential
There’s a specification reference at the by reference to the Half-cell reactions are reversible. So just like any other reversible reaction,
standard hydrogen the equilibrium position is affected by changes in temperature, pressure and
bottom that links to the AQA specification. eKlneocwtro tdhea.t standard cToo ngceet natrroautinodn .t h Cish, asntagnindga rthde c eoqnudiiltiibornius mar ep oussietido nto c mhaenagsuesre t heele ccetrlol dpeo tential.
oeEl foe ,2c r9ter8ofe dKres, t1po0o c0teo nknPtdiaai tli,o ns pthoet eenleticatlrso —de upsointegn tthiaels aen cdo nyoduit icoanns cmoemanpsa ryeo vua alulwesa yfos rg deitf ftehree nsat mceel lvs.alue for
and 1.00 mol dm−3
solution of ions. The standard hydrogen electrode
ReSfepreecnicfiec a3t.1io.1n1 .1 You measure the electrode potential of a half-cell against a standard hydrogen
electrode. In the standard hydrogen electrode, hydrogen gas is bubbled
Tips through a solution of aqueous H+ ions. A platinum electrode is used as a
platform for the oxidation/reduction reactions — see Figure 1.
Tip: See the earlier
page on Le Chatelier’s
These are here to help you Principle (pages 133- External circuit
135) for more about
understand the theory. htaenomdwp cceohrnaatcnuegrneet,sr apitnrieo sns uarfefe ct H2(g) Salt bridge Another cell
the position of equilibria.
Tip: A platinum
electrode is needed
because you can’t have
a gas electrode. Hydrogen gas is bubbled
Exam Tips through a solution of
Solid platinum aqueous H+ions.
foil surface
There are tips throughout H+(aq)
Figure 1: The standard hydrogen electrode
the book to help with all
When measuring electrode potentials using the standard hydrogen electrode
sorts of things to do with Figure 2: A nugget of it’s important that everything is done under standard conditions:
platinum. Platinum is used
as the electrode in the 1. Any solutions of ions must have a concentration of 1.00 mol dm–3.
answering exam questions. standard hydrogen electrode. 2. The temperature must be 298 K (25 °C).
Exam Tip 3. The pressure must be 100 kPa.
Make sure you learn the
standard conditions —
you might well be asked Measuring standard electrode potentials
about them in the exam.
The standard electrode potential of a half-cell is the voltage measured under
standard conditions when the half-cell is connected to a standard hydrogen
electrode — see Figure 3 (next page).
328 Unit 4: Section 3 Electrode Potentials and Cells
Indicators REQUIRED 9
When you use an indicator, you need it to change colour PRACTICAL
exactly at the end point of your titration. So you need to pick one that Required Practicals
changes colour over a narrow pH range that lies entirely on the vertical part
of the pH curve. So for the titration shown in Figure 3 (below) you’d want an
indicator that changed colour somewhere between pH 8 and pH 11: As part of your course, you’ll be
14 Voef rctuicravle section expected to do a set of Required
11 The curve is vertical between pH 8
and pH 11—so a very small amount
pH of alkali will cause the pH to change Practicals. You’ll be tested on your
7 from 8 to 11.
So,an indicator that changes colour knowledge of them in your exams too.
between pH 8 and pH 11 is needed.
Information about these practicals is
0
Volume of alkali added
Figure 3: Graph showing how to select an indicator. marked with a Required Practical stamp.
Methyl orange and phenolphthalein are indicators that are often used for
Figure 4: The red to acid–base titrations. They each change colour over a different pH range:
yellow colour change of
methyl orange. Name of indicator Cloowlo uprH at Acoplporuorx c. hpaHn goef Choiglohu pr Hat
Methyl orange red 3.1 – 4.4 yellow
Phenolphthalein colourless 8.3 – 10 pink Practical Skills
For a strong acid/strong base titration, you can use either of these
indicators — there’s a rapid pH change over the range for both indicators. There are some key practical skills you’ll not
For a strong acid/weak base only methyl orange will do. The pH changes
rapidly across the range for methyl orange, but not for phenolphthalein. only need to use in your Required Practicals,
For a weak acid/strong base, phenolphthalein is the stuff to use.
Tmheet hpyHl ocrhaannggee’ss. rapidly over phenolphthalein’s range, but not over but you could be tested on in the exams too.
tFoi gpuirnek 5c:o Tlohuer ccohlaonugrlee sosf For weak acid/weak base titrations there’s no sharp pH change, so no
phenolphthalein indicator will work — you should just use a pH meter. There’s a Practical Skills section at the front
You need to be able to use a pH curve to select an appropriate indicator:
Example of this book with loads of information on
The graph to the right shows the pH curve 14
produced when a strong acid is added to a
EInx yaomu rT eipxa m, you’ll winedaicka btoars et.h aFtr oyomu tchoeu tladb ules eb efolor wth, isse tlietcrat taionn .pH7 how to plan experiments and analyse data.
usually be given a Indicator pH range
table of indicators to Bromophenol blue 3.0 – 4.6
cewhxoaormorysp,e ly efor o—um d s,o olni kd’teo h nian’vt eth tios CreLsoitlm puusrple 75..60 –– 98..20 0 Volume of acid added
learn all these indicators The graph shows that the vertical part of the pH curve is between about Examples
and their pH ranges. pH 2 and pH 6. So you need an indicator with a pH range between 2
and 6. The only indicator that changes colour within this range is
bromophenol blue. So in this example, bromophenol blue is the right These are here to help you
indicator to choose.
352 Unit 4: Section 4 Acids, Bases and pH understand the theory.
i
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Maths Skills
Cisplatin
Camismploatninia ims ao lceocmulpelse ixn o af spqlautainreu mpl(aIIn) awr isthha tpweo ( scehel oFriigduer eio 1n)s. and two isToiidnpes:s w Iofe ft rhtehe eo t nwc ooomp cppholleosxirt ied e There’s a range of maths skills you could
H3N Pt NH3 tmtorao nelasepcchlua ltoeint hw. eo Tru rtalhdne s bpel atin be expected to apply in your exams.
Cl Cl hefafse cdtisf fteor ecnist pbliaotilno.gical Examples that show these maths skills
Figure 1: The structure of cisplatin.
in action are marked up like this.
Cisplatin can be used to treat some types of cancer. Cancer is caused by cells
in the body dividing uncontrollably and forming tumours. Cisplatin is active Tip: The downside is
against a variety of cancers, including lung and bladder cancer, because it that cisplatin also There’s also a Maths Skills section
prevents cancer cells from reproducing. prevents normal cells
from reproducing —
Cis-trans isomerism in octahedral complex ions including blood and hair at the back of the book.
Octahedral complexes with four ligands of one type and two ligands of cells. This can cause
toahnpeopnto hyseiotreu t ’yevpaeec g hco aot ntthh aeelr sc oyis oe uixs’hoviemb gietor .ct itsh-tera tnrasn iss oismoemriesrm, i.f tIhf ethye’r etw noe xotd tdo leiagcahn dost haerer htiihnnaecfier ric emltaoisomsisnnu .ag nn Cetdh is essyp ursliptasepktmi rnoe, fsm s ay
also cause damage to
Example Maths Skills the kidneys.
NiCl2(H2O)4 has a trans and a cis isomer. Practice Questions — Application
Cl OH
H2O Ni OH2 H2O Ni2 Cl aTnip o: v eIfr aal lc ochmaprgleex o hf as Annoyingly, the examiners expect you to
H2O Cl OH2 H2O OH2 Cl ztsoqe urpoau,r tey t ohbuera dfcookrnemt’tsu .nlae eind bsietu aabtiloen tso —ap pthlye syeo quur eksntioownsle adrgee h teor en etow
trans-NiCl2(H2O)4 cis-NiCl2(H2O)4
give you plenty of practice at doing this.
Practice Questions — Application
All the answers are in the back of the
Q1 State what type of stereoisomerism the following complex ions
wab))i llP[ CetCxohl(2ei(bnHi)t23:O]2+)2 asThbipoo:wu tnI ft hiyneo auis ’coreom maesprkilseemdx ion, book (including any calculation workings).
Q2 Dc)r aCwu t(hOeH c)i2s( Han2Od )t4rans isomers of NiCl2(H2O)2. sdoorf amtwhee to iimuotne t shfi ierts hts te—rulp ctsth uteorne
you’ll get a better idea of
the possible isomers.
Practice Questions — Fact Recall Practice Questions — Fact Recall
Q1 Name two types of stereoisomerism that complex ions can exhibit.
Q2 Draw the structure of cisplatin. There are a lot of facts you need to
learn — these questions are here to
test that you know them.
Unit 5: Section 2 Transition Metals 383
All the answers are in the back of the book.
Exam-style Questions
Practising exam-style questions is really
Exam-style Questions
important — you’ll find some at the end
of each section.
1 Which of the options below shows the correct monomers that are formed when the
They’re the same style as the ones you’ll general polymer shown below is hydrolysed by water?
O O
get in the real exams — some will test your O R’O C R C n
knowledge and understanding and some Monomer 1 Monomer 2
A HO–R’–OH HOOC–R–COOH
will test that you can apply your knowledge. B HO–R–OH HOOC–R’–COOH
C HO–R’–COOH HOOC–R–OH
All the answers are in the back of the book, D HO–R’–CONH2 H2NOC–R–OH (1 mark)
along with a mark scheme to show you 2 Tpohley mdieargisraem to b feolromw a s hpoewptsid teh:e repeating unit formed when two amino acids
how you get the marks. OCNH2 OCOH
HC O H CH O
2 2
N C C N C C
H H H
2.1 Draw the two amino acids which have joined together to make this repeating unit.
(2 marks)
Exam Help 2.2 What type of polymerisation occurs between the amino acids to form this polymer?
(1 mark)
2.3 What is the name of the link that forms between two amino acids?
There’s a section at the back of the book (1 mark)
stuffed full of things to help with your exams. 3 Nylon 6,6 is made from hexanedioic acid and 1,6-diaminohexane.
3.1 What type of condensation polymer is nylon 6,6?
(1 mark)
3.2 Draw the repeating unit of nylon 6,6.
(1 mark)
Glossary 3.3 Is nylon 6,6 biodegradable or non-biodegradable? Explain your answer.
(4 marks)
3.4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of recycling objects made
There’s a glossary at the back of the book full from nylon 6,6.
(4 marks)
of all the definitions you need to know for
your exams, plus loads of other useful words. Unit 6: Section 3 Polymers 475
ii
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Published by CGP
Editors:
Katie Braid, Emma Clayton, Mary Falkner, Katherine Faudemer, Gordon Henderson, Emily Howe,
Paul Jordin, Rachel Kordan, Sophie Scott, Ben Train.
Contributors:
Mike Bossart, Robert Clarke, Ian H. Davis, John Duffy, Emma Grimwood, Lucy Muncaster,
Derek Swain, Paul Warren.
With thanks to Glenn Rogers and Karen Wells for the proofreading.
With thanks to Laura Jakubowski for the copyright research.
AQA Specification material is reproduced by permission of AQA.
CATB73 ~ 0721 - 23004
Clipart from Corel®
Text, design, layout and original illustrations © Coordination Group Publications Ltd. (CGP) 2018
All rights reserved.
0800 1712 712 • www.cgpbooks.co.uk
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