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A History of Chinese Buddhist Faith and Life
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2020 | doi:10.1163/9789004431775_001 Kai Sheng - 978-90-04-43177-5
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ii
Studies on East Asian Religions
Edited by
James A. Benn (McMaster University)
Jinhua Chen (University of British Columbia)
VOLUME 3
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/sear
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iii
A History of Chinese
Buddhist Faith and Life
By
Kai Sheng
Translated by
Jeffrey Kotyk
Matt Orsborn
Gina Yang
Edited by
Jinhua Chen
LEIDEN | BOSTON
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This publication has been made possible with the support of the Chinese Fund for the Humanities and
Social Sciences.
Abridged and updated English edition of Zhongguo Fojiao xinyang yu shenghuo shi 中國佛教信仰與生
活史, Jiangsu Renmin Press 江苏人民出版社 2016.
Cover illustration: Bhikṣu Sponsor in the Gong county 鞏縣 Grotto Complex dated to the Northern Wei
(386-534).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sheng, Kai, 1972- author. | Chen, Jinhua, 1966- editor.
Title: A history of Chinese Buddhist faith and life / by Kai Sheng; translated by
Jeffrey Kotyk, Matt Osborn, Gina Yang ; edited by Jinhua Chen.
Other titles: Zhongguo fo jiao xin yang yu sheng huo shi. English
Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, [2020] | Series: Studies on East
Asian religions, 2452-0098 ; volume 3 | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020015832 (print) | LCCN 2020015833 (ebook) | ISBN
9789004431522 (hardback) | ISBN 9789004431775 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Buddhism--China--History. | Buddhism--Social
aspects--China.
Classification: LCC BQ626 .S54213 2020 (print) | LCC BQ626 (ebook) | DDC
294.30951--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020015832
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020015833
Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface.
issn 2452-0098
isbn 978-90-04-43152-2 (hardback)
isbn 978-90-04-43177-5 (e-book)
Copyright 2020 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill
Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior written permission from the publisher.
Requests for re-use and/or translations must be addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV via brill.com
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This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.
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ContentCsontents v
Contents
List of Figures ix
Introduction: Expression and Transformation of Chinese Buddhist Faith:
Perspectives of Institutional History, Social History, Cultural History, and
Scholarship History 1
1 “Holistic Buddhism” and the Sinicization of Buddhism 1
2 The Perspective of Institutional History in Chinese Buddhist Faith 7
3 The Perspective of Social History in Chinese Buddhist Faith 13
4 The Perspective of Cultural History in Chinese Buddhist Faith 17
1 The Faith and Lifestyles of Buddhists during the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 26
1 The Formation of Buddhist Repentance 26
1.1 Daoan’s Regulations for Monks and Nuns and Confession of
Transgressions 26
1.2 Preaching in the Northern and Southern Dynasties 34
1.3 Purification Gathering (Zhaihui 齋會) and Repenting
Transgressions (Huiguo 悔過) 38
1.4 The Formation of Repentance Rites in the Six Dynasties Period
(222-589) 45
1.5 Zhenguan 真觀 (538-611) and the Formation of the Lianghuang
Chan 梁皇懺 49
2 The Formation of the Tradition of Buddhist Vegetarianism 62
2.1 The Scriptural Basis of Vegetarianism 62
2.2 The Tradition of Monastic Vegetarianism before Liang Wudi 64
2.3 Vegetarianism of Zhou Yong 周顒 (?-493) and Shen Yue 沈約
(441-513) 71
2.4 The Thought of Liang Wudi in the “Duan Jiurou Wen” 76
3 Buddhist Societies in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and
Philanthropy 93
3.1 Buddhist Societies of the Northern and Southern Dynasties 93
3.2 Buddhist Merit Making in the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 98
3.3 Buddhist Philanthropy in the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 101
4 The Cult of the Fahua Jing in the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 114
4.1 The Idea of Samādhi in the Fahua Jing 115
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vi Contents
4.2 The Contemplative Method of “Lotus Samādhi” in the Siwei Lüeyao
Fa 思惟略要法 120
4.3 Idea of Repentance in the Puxian Guanjing 普賢觀經 122
4.4 The Popularity of the Cult of the Fahua Jing 125
4.5 Huisi’s Fahua Jing Anlexing Yi 法華經安樂行義 134
5 Cults of Bhaiṣajyaguru, Avalokiteśvara and Relics in the Northern and
Southern Dynasties 143
5.1 The Cult of Bhaiṣajyaguru in the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 143
5.2 The Cult of Avalokiteśvara in the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 148
5.3 The Cult of Relics during the Northern and Southern
Dynasties 152
6 Concluding Remarks 163
Appendix 1.1: The Translation of Avalokiteśvara’s Name and the
Transmission of Related Scriptures 167
2 Faith and Lifestyle of Buddhists in the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties 170
1 Buddhist Faith and Rituals in the Sui and Tang 170
1.1 Zhiyi and the Compilation of Repentance Rites 170
1.2 Zongmi and the Yuanjue Jing Daochang Xiuzheng Yi 圓覺經道場
修證儀 197
1.3 Repentance Ritual of Chan Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty 202
1.4 Daoxuan and the Repentance Ritual of the Vinaya School 218
1.5 Shandao and Pure Land Rites of Worship and Praise 226
1.6 Sui and Tang Medicine Buddha Altars and the Repentance Ritual
of Worshiping the Medicine Buddha 242
1.7 Maitreya Faith and Ritual of Maitreya Worship and Repentance 249
2 Neidaochang 內道場 and Śarīra Worship in the Sui and Tang 257
2.1 Origins of the Neidaochang 內道場 257
2.2 Yang Guang’s Huiri Daochang and Riyan Monastery 260
2.3 Neidaochang in the Tang Dynasty 271
2.4 Śarīra Worship of Emperor Wen of Sui 280
2.5 Śarīra Worship of the Emperors in the Tang Dynasty 284
3 Buddhist Social Philanthropy in the Sui and Tang Periods 294
3.1 Buddhist Philanthropy in the Sui Dynasty 295
3.2 Compassion-Field Infirmaries in the Tang Dynasty 297
3.3 Monastery Boarding Houses in the Tang Dynasty 303
4 Public Lectures and Illustrative Narrative in the Tang and Five
Dynasties 310
4.1 Ritual Procedures for Lecturing on Sūtras in the Tang and Five
Dynasties 310
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Contents vii
4.2 Public Lectures in the Tang and Five Dynasties 332
4.3 Illustrative Lecture and Illustrative Narrative in the Tang and Five
Dynasties Period 335
5 Conclusion 338
Appendix 2.1: An English Translation of the Yaoshi Daochang Wen
藥師道場文 (Text of the Medicine Buddha Altar; B. 8719V), Based on Li
Xiaorong’s Critical Edition 343
Appendix 2.2: 34 Monastics Affiliated with Yang Guang’s Palace
Chapels 352
Appendix 2.3: Monastics Involved in the Construction of Stūpas
During the Renshou Era (601-604) 355
Appendix 2.4: A Comparison of Descriptions of the Sūtra Lecturing by
Ennin and Other Sources 360
3 Buddhist Faith and Activities in the Song and Yuan Dynasties
(960–1368) 363
1 Buddhist Faith and Rituals in the Song and Yuan Periods 363
1.1 The Creation and Practice of Tiantai Repentance Rituals in the
Song Dynasty 365
1.2 The Practice of Repentance in the Song Huayan Buddhism 380
1.3 Buddhist and Pure Land Communes in the Song-Yuan Periods 394
1.4 Niepan Hui 涅槃會 (Nirvāṇa Gatherings) and the Niepan Lizan
Wen 涅槃禮贊文 (Veneration Verses of the Nirvāṇa) 399
1.5 The Development of the ‘Water and Land Rite’ 413
2 Buddhist Philanthropy in the Song and Yuan Periods 419
2.1 Buddhist Social Programs during the Song Dynasty 420
2.2 Song Dynasty Buddhism and Regional Charity 424
3 The Practice of Life Release in Buddhism from the Song to Yuan
Periods 426
3.1 The Origins of the Life Release Practice 426
3.2 Life Release Practices Before the Song Period 429
3.3 The Popularity of the Life Release Practice in the Song
Dynasty 432
4 Conclusion 434
Appendix 3.1: Three Transgressions (Sampin zui 三品罪) 437
Appendix 3.2: Three Methods of Repentance (Sanzhong Chanmen
三種懺門) 438
4 Buddhist Faith and Lifestyles in the Ming and Qing Dynasties 440
1 Mount Jiang Dharma Services and the Consolidation of Yoga Teachings
under Emperor Taizu of Ming 440
1.1 The Creation and Procedures of the Mount Jiang Dharma
Service 440
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Contents
Contents viii Contents
Figures
Introduction
Expression and Transformation of Chinese Buddhist Faith: Perspectives of Institutional History, Social History, Cultural History, and Scholarship History 1
1 “Holistic Buddhism” and the Sinicization of Buddhism 1
2 The Perspective of Institutional History in Chinese Buddhist Faith 7 1.2 Ming Taizu’s Religious Views on Spirits and the Demands of “Rites”
3 The Perspective of Social History in Chinese Buddhist Faith 13
4 The Perspective of Cultural History in Chinese Buddhist Faith 17 and “Time” in Sacrifices 449
Chapter 1
The Faith and Lifestyles of Buddhists 1.3 Regulation and Promotion of Buddhist Services by Ming
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties 26
1 The Formation of Buddhist Repentance 26 Taizu 453
2 The Formation of the Tradition of Buddhist Vegetarianism 62
3 Buddhist Societies in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and Philanthropy 93
4 The Cult of the Fahua jing in the Northern and Southern Dynasties 114 2 Buddhist Services and Monastic Regulations under the Ming-Qing
5 Cults of Bhaiṣajyaguru, Avalokiteśvara and Relics in the Northern and Southern Dynasties 143
6 Concluding Remarks 163 Periods 459
Appendix 1.1: The Translation of Avalokiteśvara’s Name and the Transmission of Related Scriptures 167
Chapter 2 2.1 The Popularity and Disorder of Buddhist Services in the Ming and
Faith and Lifestyle of Buddhists in the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties 170
1 Buddhist Faith and Rituals in the Sui and Tang 170 Qing 460
2 Neidaochang 內道場 and Śarīra Worship in the Sui and Tang 257
3 Buddhist Social Philanthropy in the Sui and Tang Periods 294 2.2 The Production and Perfection of Buddhist Repentance in the Ming
4 Public Lectures and Illustrative Narrative in the Tang and Five Dynasties 310
5 Conclusion 338
Appendix 2.1: An English Translation of the Yaoshi Daochang Wen 藥師道場文 (Text of the Medicine Buddha Altar; B. 8719V), Based on Li Xiaorong’s Critical and Qing 465
Edition 343
Appendix 2.2: 34 Monastics Affiliated with Yang Guang’s Palace Chapels 352 2.3 The Revisions and Popularity of Morning and Evening
Appendix 2.3: Monastics Involved in the Construction of Stūpas During the Renshou Era (601-604) 355
Appendix 2.4: A Comparison of Descriptions of the Sūtra Lecturing by Ennin and Other Sources 360 Recitations 482
Chapter 3
Buddhist Faith and Activities in the Song and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368) 363 2.4 Reflection and Criticism of Buddhist Services in the Ming, Qing, and
1 Buddhist Faith and Rituals in the Song and Yuan Periods 363
2 Buddhist Philanthropy in the Song and Yuan Periods 419
3 The Practice of Life Release in Buddhism from the Song to Yuan Periods 426 Republican Periods 492
4 Conclusion 434
Appendix 3.1: Three Transgressions 三品罪 437 3 Philanthropy and the Life-Release in Ming and Qing Buddhism 504
Appendix 3.2: Three Methods of Repentance 三種懺門 438
Chapter 4 3.1 Buddhist Philanthropy in the Ming and Qing 505
Buddhist Faith and Lifestyles in the Ming and Qing Dynasties 440
1 Mount Jiang Dharma Services and the Consolidation of Yoga Teachings under Emperor Taizu of Ming 440 3.2 The Custom of Life-Releasing in Ming and Qing Buddhism 507
2 Buddhist Services and Monastic Regulations under the Ming-Qing Periods 459
3 Philanthropy and the Life-Release in Ming and Qing Buddhism 504
4 The Formation of the Belief in the Four Buddhist Sacred Mountains in Ming and Qing Periods 513 4 The Formation of the Belief in the Four Buddhist Sacred Mountains in
5 Conclusion 536
Appendix 4.1: The Times, Locations, Eminent Monks Participating in the Mount Jiang Dharma Service (Hasebe, kyōdanshi, 18-20) 538 Ming and Qing Periods 513
Appendix 4.2: Three Hindrances (Sanzhang 三障) 541
Appendix 4.3: Morning and Evening Chanting 544 4.1 The Time Frame in Which the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains
Conclusion
The Characteristics of Chinese Buddhist Faith 548 Concept Appeared 515
1 Spatial Creation for Objects of Chinese Buddhist Faith 548
2 Rituals of Chinese Buddhist Faith, Politics of Imperial Power and Systems of Ritual 552
3 Rationalism and Communalism as Chinese Buddhist Expressions of Faith 555 4.2 The Significance of Veneration of the Four Great Sacred Peaks 521
4 Pragmatism as Chinese Buddhist Expression of Faith 557
Bibliography 559 4.3 The Formation of Sacred Mountain Veneration and the Overcoming
Index 588
of the “Borderland Complex” 535
5 Conclusion 536
Appendix 4.1: The Times, Locations, Eminent Monks Participating in
the Mount Jiang Dharma Service (Hasebe, kyōdanshi, 18-20) 538
Appendix 4.2: Three Hindrances (Sanzhang 三障) 541
Appendix 4.3: Morning and Evening Chanting 544
Conclusion: The Characteristics of Chinese Buddhist Faith 548
1 Spatial Creation for Objects of Chinese Buddhist Faith 548
2 Rituals of Chinese Buddhist Faith, Politics of Imperial Power and
Systems of Ritual 552
3 Rationalism and Communalism as Chinese Buddhist Expressions of
Faith 555
4 Pragmatism as Chinese Buddhist Expression of Faith 557
Bibliography 559
Index 588
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FiguresFigures ix
Figures
All photos were taken by the author.
1 The remains on Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa (“Vulture Peak”), India 3
2 Pagoda dedicated to Kumārajīva’s (344-413) Reputed Tongue 9
3 The grotto remains of the Nālandā University, India 18
4 Buddha’s stucco statues from Gandhāra (private collection of HE Ping 何平) 27
5 The Buddha’s footprint, dated to the second century AD (Yale University Art
Gallery) 39
6 Bhikṣuṇī-sponsor in the Gong county 鞏縣 grotto complex, dated to the
Northern Wei (386-534) 104
7 Heads of Buddhist societies (Yi 邑) acting as sponsors for the grotto complex at
Shuiyu Monastery 水浴寺, dated to the Northern Wei 108
8 The inscription of a stele for Buddhist image, constructed in 546 110
9 The cremation pagoda for Daoping 道憑 (487-559) at Lingquan Monastery
靈泉寺 on Mount Bao 寶山 113
10 The mural featuring Mañjuśrī and Vimalakīrti lecturing in the Gong county
鞏縣 grotto complex, dated to the Northern Wei (386-534) 123
11 Bhikṣu-sponsors in Shuiyu Monastery 水浴寺 grotto complex, dated to the
Northern Wei (386-534) 127
12 Pagoda of four buddhas with colored stone carvings, dated to the Northern Qi
Dynasty (550-557) (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, the United States) 131
13 Bodhisattva statues made by Zhang Jingzhang 張景章 (d. after 544) in 544 150
14 Baita Monastery 百塔寺 on Mount Zhongnan 終南山, the patriarchal
monastery for the Sanjie Jiao 三階教 (Three-Stages Sect) 153
15 Forest of pagodas at Shaolin Monastery 少林寺 on Mount Song 嵩山, Henan
162
16 Zhixiang Monastery 至相寺 on Mount Zhongnan 終南山 198
17 Twenty-four Dharma-transmitters at Lingquan Monastery 靈泉寺 on Mount Bao
寶山 203
18 Statue of an Arhat at Kanjing Monastery 看經寺 in Longmen 龍門, dated to the
mid-Tang Dynasty (618-907) 215
19 The stone-pillar of the Da Foding tuoluoni jing 大佛頂陀羅尼經 (Skt. Sitāta-
patroṣṇīṣa dhāraṇī), constructed in 906 in Longmen 龍門 222
20 The statue of Vairocana in Longmen 龍門 (dated 672) 228
21 The painted Bodhisattva bust in the 21st Cave on Mount Tianlong 天龍山,
dated to the Tang Dynasty (618-907) (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, the
United States) 283
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