A Grammar of Dhimal

667 Pages·5.081 MB·Nepali-English

by  King John T.

A GRAMMAR OF DHIMAL
BY
JOHNT.KING

CONTENTS
LISTOFFIGURES…………………………………………………………………….....vi
ABBREVIATIONSANDCONVENTIONS.………………………………………...…….....xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………..………………………………………...……….xv
CHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1
1.1Goals..............................................................................................................1
1.2Dhimal...........................................................................................................1
1.3TheDhimalenvironment...............................................................................5
1.4Materialculture..............................................................................................6
1.5Cosmology...................................................................................................10
1.6Socioculture.................................................................................................11
1.7Politicalhistory............................................................................................14
1.8Linguisticandculturalpreservation.............................................................16
CHAPTERTWO:PHONOLOGY........................................................................................27
2.1Consonants...................................................................................................27
2.1.1PhoneticdescriptionofDhimalphonemesandallophones.......................27
2.1.2Distinctivenessofconsonantphonemes....................................................31
2.2Vowels.........................................................................................................36
2.2.1PhoneticdescriptionofDhimalvowelphonemes.....................................37
2.2.2Distinctivenessofvowelphonemes..........................................................38
2.3Segmentalphonology...................................................................................41
2.3.1Assimilationanddissimilation..................................................................42
2.5Vowelharmony............................................................................................45
2.6Variation......................................................................................................47
2.7Writingsystem.............................................................................................48
CHAPTERTHREE:NOMINALMORPHOLOGY....................................................................49
3.1Nouns...........................................................................................................49
3.1.1Nominalisation..........................................................................................50
3.1.2Adjectives.................................................................................................52
3.1.3Gender.......................................................................................................55
3.2Number........................................................................................................56
3.2.1Plural.........................................................................................................56
3.2.2Numerals...................................................................................................60
3.2.3Classifiersandmeasurewords..................................................................62
3.3Pronominals.................................................................................................65
3.3.1Personalpronouns.....................................................................................65
3.3.2Possessivepronouns..................................................................................67
3.3.3Demonstrative,interrogativeandindefinitepronouns..............................67
3.4Reflexive......................................................................................................72
3.5Postpositionsandcasemarking....................................................................74
3.5.1Genitive.....................................................................................................74
3.5.2Locative.....................................................................................................77
vi CONTENTS
3.5.3Instrumental...............................................................................................80
3.5.4Elative........................................................................................................82
3.5.5Circumlocative...........................................................................................84
3.5.6Dative........................................................................................................86
3.5.7Comitative.................................................................................................93
3.5.8Allative......................................................................................................94
3.5.9Individuatingpostposition.........................................................................95
3.6Comparative..................................................................................................97
CHAPTERFOUR:VERBALMORPHOLOGY......................................................................101
4.1Morphosyntacticprocesses.........................................................................101
4.1.1Affixation.................................................................................................102
4.1.2Reduplication...........................................................................................102
4.2Verbstemsandtheinfinitive......................................................................104
4.2.1Verbstems...............................................................................................104
4.2.2Theinfinitive...........................................................................................105
4.3Copulasandexistentials..............................................................................106
4.3.1Existential................................................................................................106
4.3.2NegativeExistential.................................................................................108
4.3.3Equationals..............................................................................................109
4.4Negation......................................................................................................111
4.4.1Prefixalnegation......................................................................................111
4.4.2Absolutenegative....................................................................................112
4.5Manneradverbs..........................................................................................113
4.6Participantreferencemarking.....................................................................119
4.6.1Firstpersonsingular.................................................................................119
4.6.2Secondpersonsingular............................................................................121
4.6.3Thirdperson.............................................................................................122
4.6.4Firstpersondual......................................................................................122
4.6.5Secondpersondual..................................................................................124
4.6.6Firstpersonplural....................................................................................125
4.6.7Secondpersonplural................................................................................125
4.6.8Collective.................................................................................................127
4.6.9Reciprocal................................................................................................128
4.6.10Imperious1s→2.....................................................................................129
4.6.11Imperious3s→2.....................................................................................130
4.6.12Affinalkinregister.................................................................................131
4.7Tenseandaspect.........................................................................................135
4.7.1Tense........................................................................................................135
4.7.2Aspect......................................................................................................146
4.7.3Periphrasticresultatives...........................................................................166
4.8Deicticmotion............................................................................................173
4.8.1Distal........................................................................................................174
4.8.2Intentive...................................................................................................177
4.8.3Indeterminatemotion...............................................................................180
4.8.4Relinquitive.............................................................................................182
4.8.5 Venitive..................................................................................................185
4.9Valency.......................................................................................................188
4.9.1Middle......................................................................................................188
CONTENTS vii
4.9.2Passive....................................................................................................195
4.9.3Causative.................................................................................................197
4.9.4Indirectcausative....................................................................................200
4.9.5Periphrasticcausative..............................................................................201
4.9.6Directive..................................................................................................202
4.10Directives.................................................................................................204
4.10.1Optative.................................................................................................204
4.10.2Adhortatives..........................................................................................206
4.10.3Imperatives............................................................................................210
CHAPTERFIVE:THESENTENCE...................................................................................221
5.1Non-finiteclauses......................................................................................221
5.1.1Sequential................................................................................................221
5.1.2Co-temporal............................................................................................226
5.1.3Concessive..............................................................................................228
5.1.4Conditional..............................................................................................230
5.1.5 Negativeconditional..............................................................................235
5.1.6Purposive.................................................................................................238
5.1.7Implicational...........................................................................................241
5.2Epistemic,mirativeandattitudinalmorphemes.........................................244
5.2.1Deductive................................................................................................245
5.2.2Dubitative................................................................................................248
5.2.3Mirative...................................................................................................252
5.2.4Apparentive.............................................................................................255
5.2.5Exclamative.............................................................................................258
5.3Informationstructure..................................................................................259
5.3.1Topic.......................................................................................................259
5.3.2Assertivefocus........................................................................................265
5.3.3Argumentandsentencefocus..................................................................269
5.3.4Presuppositional......................................................................................273
5.3.5Referentialparticle..................................................................................276
5.3.6Assertive.................................................................................................279
5.3.7Contrastive..............................................................................................281
5.4Sentencestructure......................................................................................283
5.4.1Relativeclauses.......................................................................................283
5.4.2Reportedspeechandcomplementation...................................................286
5.4.3Interrogatives..........................................................................................288
5.4.4Adhortativetag........................................................................................290
5.4.5Tagquestions..........................................................................................291
5.4.6Particleki................................................................................................292
TEXTONE:COURTING................................................................................................295
TEXTTWO:CATCHINGRATS.......................................................................................323
TEXTTHREE:HUNTINGMONITORLIZARDS..................................................................335
TEXTFOUR:THELOWLANDSTRONGMAN...................................................................349
TEXTFIVE:THETIGERANDTHEYOGI.........................................................................365
viii CONTENTS
TEXTSIX:THESPLITTINGOFTHEBANANALEAF..........................................................397
TEXTSEVEN:THEJACKALANDTHEBEAR....................................................................431
TEXTEIGHT:THESNAKEHUSBAND..............................................................................443
TEXTNINE:THEBOYANDTHEKING’SDAUGHTER.......................................................453
TEXTTEN:THEEVILSTEPMOTHER...............................................................................467
TEXTELEVEN:WHERECHICKENSCOMEFROM.............................................................475
TEXTTWELVE:SHITEATER.........................................................................................477
TEXTTHIRTEEN:THESICKONE...................................................................................479
TEXTFOURTEEN:MAKINGRICEBEER..........................................................................481
TEXTFIFTEEN:WEDDINGCEREMONY..........................................................................483
TEXTSIXTEEN:ASARECELEBRATION..........................................................................485
TEXTSEVENTEEN:LATERCLANWORSHIPDURINGPARBA............................................489
RIDDLES.....................................................................................................................491
SONGS........................................................................................................................493
INFLEXIONALPARADIGMS..........................................................................................499
KINSHIPTERMS...........................................................................................................503
DHIMAL-ENGLISHGLOSSARY......................................................................................505
BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................649
LISTOFFIGURES
Plates
1 Dhimalhomeland....................................................................................................................18
2 Younggirlwithsieve..............................................................................................................19
3 Āṭhiyābārīquartetinmustardfield.........................................................................................20
4 Younggirlgrindinglentils......................................................................................................20
5 Womansmokingacigarette....................................................................................................21
6 Youngwomengrindingriceatdawn......................................................................................21
7 Creatingthewarp....................................................................................................................22
8 Womanweavingonapitloom................................................................................................22
9 Manpreparingforsacrificesduringparbacelebration............................................................23
10 Youngmencelebratingduringphaguwa.................................................................................23
11 Groom’spartysettingoutforthebride’svillage.....................................................................24
12 Takingabreakfromfoodpreparationatawedding................................................................24
13 Ritualexchangeoutsidethebride’svillage.............................................................................25
14 Bridewithhelpercircumambulatingthegroom......................................................................25
15 Elderlymanrollingacigarette................................................................................................26
Diagrams
1 Consonantphonemes..............................................................................................................27
2 Vowelphonemes.....................................................................................................................36
3 Diphthongs..............................................................................................................................37
4 Personalpronouns...................................................................................................................66
5 Possessivepronouns................................................................................................................67
6 Demonstrativepronouns.........................................................................................................68
7 Simpleagreementparadigm..................................................................................................119
8 Affinalkinregisteragreementparadigm...............................................................................131

ABBREVIATIONSANDCONVENTIONS
1 firstperson
2 secondperson
3 thirdperson
ABS absolutenegative
ADH adhortative
adv adverb
ADR affinalkinaddressee
adj adjective
AGR adhortativetag
ALL allative
APR apparentive
ASS assertive
AUX auxiliary
CIRC circumlocative
CL genericclassifier
col collective
COL collective
COM comitative
COM1 sequentialcomitative
COND conditional
conj conjunction
CONR contrastive
COP copula
d dual
DAT dative
DED deductive
dem demonstrative
dim diminutive
DIR directive
DIST distal
DL dual
DUB dubitative
xii ABBREVIATIONSANDCONVENTIONS
EL elative
EMP emphatic
EXCL exclamative
EXT existential
f feminine
FOC assertivefocus
FOC1 argument/sentencefocus
FUT future
GEN genitive
H affininalkin
HCL humanclassifier
HYP hypothetical
HON honorific
IM indeterminatemotion
IMPL implicational
IMP imperative
IMPF imperfective
INC inceptive
IND individuating
INF infinitive
IRR irrealis
INST instrumental
inter interjection
INTENT intentive
LOC locative
m masculine
MID middle
MIR mirative
n noun
NEG negative
NOM nominaliser
num numeral
OBL oblique
p plural
P past
part particle
PASS passive
pej pejorative
PERF perfective
PIMPF pastimperfective
PL plural
POL polite