Table Of ContentA Dictionary of Research Methodology and Statistics in Applied Linguistics
A Dictionary of Research
Methodology and Statistics in
Applied Linguistics
Hossein Tavakoli
-1355،ﻦﻴﺴﺣ ،ﻲﻠﻛﻮﺗ :ﻪﺳﺎﻨﺷﺮﺳ
Tavakoli, Hossein
A Dictionary of Research Methodology and Statistics in Applied :روآﺪﻳﺪﭘ مﺎﻧ و ناﻮﻨﻋ
Linguistics / Hossein Tavakoli
.م2012 =1390،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر :ناﺮﻬﺗ :ﺮﺸﻧ تﺎﺼﺨﺸﻣ
.ص 769 :يﺮﻫﺎﻇ تﺎﺼﺨﺸﻣ
978-964-367-508-0 :ﻚﺑﺎﺷ
.ﻲﺴﻴﻠﮕﻧا :ﺖﺷاددﺎﻳ
...وآ يﺮﻨﺸﻜﻳد :ناﻮﻨﻋ ﻲﺴﻳﻮﻧاوآ
ﺎﻫﻪﻣﺎﻧهژاو --يدﺮﺑرﺎﻛ ﻲﺳﺎﻨﺷنﺎﺑز :عﻮﺿﻮﻣ
P129/ت9د91390 :هﺮﮕﻨﻛ يﺪﻨﺑهدر
418/003 :ﻲﻳﻮﻳد يﺪﻨﺑهدر
2663506 :ﻲﻠﻣ ﻲﺳﺎﻨﺸﺑﺎﺘﻛ هرﺎﻤﺷ
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the permission, in writing, from the Publisher.
RAHNAMA PRESS
Copyright © 2012
No. 112, Shohadaye Zhandarmerie St. (Moshtagh St.), Between Farvardin & Fakhre Razi,
Enghelab Ave., Oppo. Tehran University, Tehran, Iran.
P.O. Box: 13145/1845 - Tel: (021) 66416604 & 66400927
E-mail: [email protected]
http://www.rahnamapress.com
ISBN: 9789643675080
:ﻒﻟﺆﻣ ، A Dictionary of Research Methodology and Statistics in Applied Linguistics
،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر تارﺎﺸﺘﻧا :ﺮﺷﺎﻧ،ﻪﺨﺴﻧ1500 :ژاﺮﻴﺗ،1390نﺎﺘﺴﻣز :لواپﺎﭼ،مﺎﻓهﺮﻘﻧﻪﻧﺎﺨﭘﺎﭼ :پﺎﭼ ،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر :ﻲﻓاﺮﮔﻮﺘﻴﻟ،ﻲﻠﻛﻮﺗ ﻦﻴﺴﺣ
،66416604،66400927 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،112كﻼـﭘ ،يﺮﻣراﺪﻧاژ ياﺪﻬﺷ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ ﺶﺒﻧ ،ﻦﻳدروﺮﻓ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ ،ناﺮﻬﺗهﺎﮕﺸﻧاد ﻞﺑﺎﻘﻣ :سردآ
ﻲﻗﺮﺷ 42 و 40 ﻦﻴﺑ ،ﻲﺑﻮﻨﺟ ﻲﻳﺎﺒﻃﺎﺒﻃ ﻪﻣﻼﻋ نﺎـﺑﺎـﻴﺧ ،دﺎﺑآتدﺎﻌﺳ ،ﺎﻤـﻨﻫر هﺎﮕـﺷوﺮـﻓ ،66467424 :ﺲﻛﺎﻓ ، 66481662
،77482505 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ،ﻲﻳاﻮﻫ يوﺮﻴﻧ مﻮﺳ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ ﺶﺒﻧ يزوﺮﻴﭘ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ :4هرﺎﻤﺷ هﺎﮕﺷوﺮﻓ سردآ ، 88694102 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،29كﻼﭘ
978-964-367-508-0 :ﻚﺑﺎﺷ ، 66950957 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،هﺪﻧزوﺮﻓ ژﺎﺳﺎﭘ ناﺮﻬﺗ هﺎﮕﺸﻧاد ﻞﺑﺎﻘﻣ ،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر بﺎﺘﻛ هﺎﮕﺸﻳﺎﻤﻧ
ﺖﺳا ظﻮﻔﺤﻣﺮﺷﺎﻧياﺮﺑ پﺎﭼ ﻖﺣ
لﺎﻳر170000
:ﺖﻤﻴﻗ
To my mother
Introduction
‘A dictionary of research methodology and statistics in applied linguistics’ is
a reference guide which offers an authoritative and comprehensive overview
of key terms and concepts in the areas of research and statistics as concerns
the field of applied linguistics. The volume is intended as a resource to de-
lineate the meaning and use of various concepts, approaches, methods, de-
signs, techniques, tools, types, and processes of applied linguistics research
in an efficient and accessible style. Some entries relating to statistical aspects
of research are also used so as to help the researcher in the successful formu-
lation, analysis, and execution of the research design and carry the same to-
wards its logical end. This book makes use of approximately 2000 entries on
the key concepts and issues of research with cross references where neces-
sary. Cross-referencing is achieved in several ways. Within the text, there
are terms which have their own alphabetical entries and are printed in SMALL
CAPITAL LETTERS. There are also in-text entries that are defined within the
body of the paragraph and are printed in bold letters. Other entries that are
related to the term at issue that might be of interest and further investigation
are either provided in the main text or listed at the end of each entry under
‘see’ and ‘see also’ respectively. In this volume, the sign has also been
used for representing the resources from which the materials have been re-
produced or adapted.
This volume is designed to appeal to undergraduate and graduate students,
teachers, lecturers, practitioners, researchers, consultants, and consumers of
information across the field of applied linguistics and other related disci-
plines. I hope that this dictionary succeeds in fulfilling its intent as a re-
source that can convey essential information about research issues, practices,
and procedures across the whole gamut of the applied linguistics.
I would very much welcome reactions and comments from readers, especial-
ly relating to points where I may have lapsed or strayed from accuracy of
meaning, consistency of style, etc., in the interests of improving coverage
and treatment for future editions.
Hossein Tavakoli 2012
[email protected]
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to express my most sincere thanks to Dr.
Seyyed Abbas Mousavi, the writer of an encyclopedic dictionary of lan-
guage testing, for his professional and helpful comments and guidance. On a
personal note, I would like to thank my wife, for her love and help, for mak-
ing this project a success. I also wish to thank my parents for their life-long
support and patience.
A
ABA design
see EQUIVALENT TIME-SAMPLES DESIGN. See also SINGLE-SUBJECT RE-
VERSAL DESIGN
ABAB design
see EQUIVALENT TIME-SAMPLES DESIGN. See also SINGLE-SUBJECT RE-
VERSAL DESIGN
ABABA design
see EQUIVALENT TIME-SAMPLES DESIGN. See also SINGLE-SUBJECT RE-
VERSAL DESIGN
ABACA design
see MULTIPLE-I DESIGN
ABCDEFG design
see MULTIPLE-I DESIGN
abduction
the least familiar mode of reasoning and the mode that was systematized
most recently. In conjunction with deduction and induction (see INDUC-
TIVE REASONING, DEDUCTIVE REASONING), abduction is used to make
logical inferences about the world. It is an interpretivist research strategy
(see NORMATIVE PARADIGM). Whereas positivists (see POSITIVISM) and
variable analysts marginalize the meaning-making activities of social ac-
tors, interpretivists focus on these activities, and in particular, individu-
als’ intentions, reasons, and motives. This is an insider’s perspective, and
therefore outsider or external accounts of social actors’ beliefs and inten-
tions are considered to give a partial view of reality. It is the beliefs and
practices of individuals that constitute the subject matter of research. The
abductive process comprises the way educational researchers go beyond
the accounts given by social actors about their plans, intentions, and ac-
tions in the real world. This process is multi-layered, with the first stage
being the collection of data that reports how individuals understand reali-
ty, using methods such as semi-structured and auto-biographical inter-
views. At the second stage the researcher moves from reporting lay ac-
counts to constructing social scientific theories about human relations.
Some types of interpretivists argue that this constitutes an illegitimate
step, and for them, concepts, ideas, and constructs have to be embedded
in lay accounts, and their task is to report them.
2 abscissa
There are a number of problems with this approach: the process of col-
lecting data about these accounts is likely to influence them; and analyz-
ing and reporting such constitute a going beyond the original account.
Scott & Morrison 2005
abscissa
another term for HORIZONTAL AXIS
abstract
a brief summary of research that includes the research questions, the
methods used and the results. The structure may vary but a well-written
abstract should summarize five essential things to help the reader know
what the study is about: (a) purpose of the study, (b) source(s) from
where the data are drawn (usually referred to as PARTICIPANTS), (c) the
method(s) used for collecting data, (d) the general results, and (e) general
interpretation of the results.
A well-prepared abstract can be the most important single paragraph in
an article. Most people have their first contact with an article by seeing
just the abstract, usually in comparison with several other abstracts, as
they are doing a literature search. Readers frequently decide on the basis
of the abstract whether to read the entire article. The abstract needs to be
dense with information. By embedding key words in your abstract, you
enhance the user’s ability to find it. A good abstract is:
• Accurate: You should ensure that the abstract correctly reflects the pur-
pose and content of the manuscript. Do not include information that
does not appear in the body of the manuscript. If the study extends or
replicates previous research, note this in the abstract and cite the au-
thor’s last name and the year of the relevant report. Comparing an ab-
stract with an outline of the manuscript’s headings is a useful way to
verify its accuracy.
• Nonevaluative: You should report rather than evaluate; do not add to or
comment on what is in the body of the manuscript.
• Coherent and readable: You should write in clear and concise lan-
guage. You should use verbs rather than their noun equivalents and the
active rather than the passive voice (e.g., investigated rather than an in-
vestigation of; The authors presented the results instead of Results
were presented). Also, you should use the present tense to describe
conclusions drawn or results with continuing applicability; use the past
tense to describe specific variables manipulated or outcomes measured.
• Concise: You should be brief, and make each sentence maximally in-
formative, especially the lead sentence. Begin the abstract with the
most important points. Do not waste space by repeating the title. In-
accommodation 3
clude in the abstract only the four or five most important concepts,
findings, or implications. You should use the specific words in your ab-
stract that you think your audience will use in their electronic searches.
see also RESEARCH REPORT
Perry 2011; Mackey & Gass 2005; American Psychological Association 2010
ACASI
an abbreviation for AUDIO COMPUTER-ASSISTED SELF-INTERVIEWING
accelerated longitudinal design
a type of LONGITUDINAL MIXED DESIGN which is used in obtaining per-
spective-like data in less time; in such a design multiple COHORTs of dif-
ferent ages are observed longitudinally for shorter period of time. The
idea is that if the cohorts are slightly overlapping, the researcher can sta-
tistically combine the cohorts and estimate a single growth path, extend-
ing from the youngest age observed to the oldest.
see also ROTATING PANELS, SPLIT PANELS, LINKED PANELS, COHORT
STUDY, DIARY STUDY
Dörnyei 2007
acceptability judgment
an ELICITATION tool in which a list of grammatical and ungrammatical
sentences is presented to learners who are then asked to indicate whether
they consider them acceptable in the second language or not.
Mackey & Gass 2005
accessible population
see POPULATION
accidental sampling
another term for OPPORTUNISTIC SAMPLING
accommodation
a strategy employed when a researcher has reservations about removal or
inclusion of OUTLIERs. Accommodation involves the use of a procedure
which utilizes all the data, but at the same time minimizes the influence
of outliers. Two obvious options within the framework of accommoda-
tion that reduce the impact of outliers are: a) use of the MEDIAN in lieu of
the MEAN as a measure of central tendency; b) employing an inferential
STATISTICAL TEST that uses rank-orders instead of interval/ratio data.
Accommodation is often described within the context of employing a
ROBUST statistical procedure (e.g., a procedure that assigns weights to
the different observations when calculating the sample mean). Two
commonly used methods for dealing with outliers (which are sometimes
