A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Lived Experience by Kathy Sanderson A Disserta

332 Pages·2017·1.76 MB·English

Saint Mary's University

Workplace Ostracism:
A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Lived Experience

by
Kathy Sanderson

A Dissertation Submitted to
Sobey School of Business,
Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration
January 2017
©Kathy Sanderson

Approved: Albert J. Mills, PhD
Supervisor

Approved: Marjut Jyrkinen, PhD
External Examiner

Approved: Jean Helms Mills, PhD
Committee Member

Approved: Feng Liu, PhD
Committee Member

Date: January 20, 2017
i
Dedication

For my dad, with love.
ii
Acknowledgements

I am forever grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Albert Mills, who displayed endless
patience and expertly guided me through a process I did not think I would complete. I
have learned so much during the eight years I have known him and have never had a
more amazing professor. I am also very thankful for my committee members, Dr. Marjut
Jyrkinen, Dr. Jean Helms Mills, Dr. Feng Liu. The comments and suggestions made by
these remarkable women immensely improved my final product.

Over the years, my husband has been supportive in so many ways: reassuring,
badgering, cooking and generally trying to keep me moving in a forward direction. He
always knew that I could earn a Ph.D and had faith in me when I did not.

I would also like the thank all of my family and friends who helped me in
numerous ways. Being surrounded by positive people makes all the difference. Special
thanks to my sister: To begin, begin.

My biggest support throughout my whole life has been my mom. This thesis was
no different. She was encouraging, helpful and loving, as always. She was also my proof
reader! I’ll never be able to thank her enough for all she has done, and continues to do for
me.
iii
ABSTRACT

Workplace Ostracism:
A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Lived Experience

by
Kathy Sanderson

We all want to belong, fit in and be accepted. It is not surprising that when there
are difficulties feeling as though we belong, that we experience distress (Lau, Moulds &
Richardson, 2009; Robinson, O’Reilly & Wang, 2013; Wirth & Williams, 2009). One of
the ways in which that need can be obstructed at work is by ostracism.

Creating safe workspaces, a definition which goes beyond physical safety, is
becoming more of a priority for employers and employees (Bruning & Turner, 2009;
Neal & Griffin, 2002; Raines, 2011; Zacaratos, Barling & Iverson, 2005). As the focus
moves along the continuum from blatant discrimination and bullying to less obvious
counterproductive work behaviours such as incivility and harassment, how employees are
being treated and treating others is an important consideration within workplaces.
Workplace ostracism forms part of this continuum.

Taking a step away from the quantitative and positivist measures of workplace
ostracism, this study explores the lived experience through interviews. Utilizing narrative
and critical discourse analysis, this dissertation identifies new and unique perspectives of
persistent workplace ostracism. It expands the definition and understanding of how
ostracism is enacted within the workplace. It identifies consequences that have not
previously been studied.

By exploring the lived experiences of persistent ostracism, this dissertation not
only contributes in terms of providing the first identification of the long-term impacts, it
also proposes a reframing of the understanding of how ostracism occurs at work by
identifying locations of power. In doing so, the constraints to responding to ostracism are
contextualized. This dissertation situates persistent ostracism within a trauma and abuse
framework. Based upon this critical perspective, recommendations for interventions at
the organizational, management and individual level are proposed.

January 20, 2017
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................... iv
Tables .......................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1. Definitions and Examples ....................................................................................... 2
1.2. Research Approach and Rationale ........................................................................ 5
1.3. Research Quesions ................................................................................................ 14
1.4. Significance and Overview ................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 18
2.1. Definitions .............................................................................................................. 19
2.2. Overview of Research Progression ...................................................................... 22
2.3. Ostracism Findings ............................................................................................... 26
Four Basic Human Needs - Needs Satisfaction ......................................................... 28
Aggression, Anti-Social Responses and Anger .......................................................... 40
Anxiety and Rumination ............................................................................................. 49
Mood .......................................................................................................................... 57
Meta-Analysis Findings ............................................................................................. 60
Miscellaneous Findings ............................................................................................. 64
Workplace Ostracism Findings .................................................................................. 68
2.4. Summary of Gaps within the Current Research ............................................... 71

Chapter 3 – THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................ 77
3.1. Social Constructionism ......................................................................................... 77
3.2. Power ...................................................................................................................... 84
Locations of Power .................................................................................................... 84
Opportunity for Voice ................................................................................................ 88
3.3. Reflexivity .............................................................................................................. 89

Chapter 4 – METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 93
4.1. Interviews ............................................................................................................... 94
4.2. Critical Discourse Analysis .................................................................................. 98
4.3. Data Collection ................................................................................................... 104
Recruitment .............................................................................................................. 104
Interview Process ..................................................................................................... 107
Interview Questions ................................................................................................. 108
4.4. Participant Profiles ............................................................................................. 110
v
4.5. Reflexivity - Data Collection ............................................................................. 118
4.6. Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 124
Narrative Analysis of Text ....................................................................................... 124
Critical Discourse Analysis - Dialectical-Relational Approach.............................. 127

Chapter 5 –NARRATIVES OF WORKPLACE OSTRACISM................................ 136
5.1. Examples of Ostracism ....................................................................................... 137
Lack of Acknowledgement ........................................................................................ 139
Exclusion from Conversations ................................................................................. 140
Ignoring and Dismissive Behaviours ....................................................................... 141
Non-Verbal Cues ...................................................................................................... 142
Gossip ...................................................................................................................... 143
Not Invited to Meetings ............................................................................................ 144
Removal of Job Duties ............................................................................................. 145
5.2. Themes: Consequences of Persistent Ostracism ............................................. 147
Emotional Consequences ......................................................................................... 148
Social Consequences ................................................................................................ 154
Professional Consequences...................................................................................... 163
Long Term Consequences ........................................................................................ 165
Irrelevance ............................................................................................................... 168
5.3. Discussion: The Lived Experience .................................................................... 170
Need to Belong ......................................................................................................... 171
Need for Meaningful Existence ................................................................................ 175
Need for Control ...................................................................................................... 178
Aggression, Anti-Social Responses .......................................................................... 180
Anger ........................................................................................................................ 183
Group/Team Structure ............................................................................................. 184
Workplace Outcomes ............................................................................................... 187

Chapter 6 –ANALYSIS ................................................................................................. 190
6.1. Workplace Environment .................................................................................... 193
Stress Factors ........................................................................................................... 193
Gender Factors ........................................................................................................ 197
6.2. Locations of Power .............................................................................................. 199
Locations of Non-Power .......................................................................................... 199
Locations of Organizationally Supported Power .................................................... 202
6.3. Obstacle 1: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Traits ........................................ 211
6.4. Obstacle 2: Abusive Relationships ................................................................... 218
6.5. Obstacle 3: Constraints to Alternatives for Responding ................................ 224

vi
Chapter 7 – RECOMMENDATIONS, LIMITATIONS and AREAS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................................................................. 229
7.1. Summary and Critique of Recommendations from Existing Research ......... 230
Existing Research - Supported Recommendations................................................... 231
Existing Research - Refuted Recommendations ....................................................... 233
7.2. Recommendations ............................................................................................... 238
Organizational Interventions ................................................................................... 240
Management/Human Resource Interventions .......................................................... 246
For Those Experiencing Workplace Ostracism ....................................................... 250
7.3. Limitations ........................................................................................................... 255
7.4. Areas for Future Research ................................................................................. 258
7.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 260
7.4. Reflexivity - Final Processes and Thoughts ...................................................... 263
References ....................................................................................................................... 267
Appendix A: Summary of Ostracism Literature ........................................................ 286
Appendix B: Summary of Workplace Ostracism Literature .................................... 308
Appendix C: Participant Letters and Forms ............................................................... 314
Appendix D: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Diagnosis ........................................... 322

vii
List of Tables

Table 1: Interview Participant Profiles ........................................................................... 111
Table 2: Supported and Refuted Workplace Ostracism Interventions ............................ 237
Table 3: Recommended Interventions ............................................................................ 239
viii
List of Figures

Figure 1: Ostracism Findings of Needs Satisfaction ......................................................... 28
Figure 2: Ostracsim Findings of Aggression, Anti-Social Responses and Anger ............ 40
Figure 3: Ostracism Findings of Anxiety and Rumination ............................................... 49
Figure 4: Ostracism Findings of Mood ............................................................................. 57
Figure 5: Ostracism Findings from Meta-Analyses .......................................................... 60
Figure 6: Miscellaneous Ostracism Findings .................................................................... 64
Figure 7: Workplace Ostracism Findings ......................................................................... 69

ix
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION

We all want to belong, fit in and be accepted. This want has been shown to be a
basic human need (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). This need to belong impacts individuals
in all aspects of their lives, including social groups and workplace relationships. It is not
surprising that when this basic need is blocked or when there are difficulties feeling as
though we belong, that we experience distress (Lau, Moulds & Richardson, 2009;
Robinson, O’Reilly & Wang, 2013; Wirth & Williams, 2009). One of the ways in which
that need can be obstructed at work is by ostracism.
Workplace ostracism has received increasing attention over the past ten years and
yet remains an under-researched area (Ferris, Brown, Berry & Lian, 2008; Hitlan, Kelly,
Schepman, Schneider & Zarate, 2006b). Creating safe workspaces, a definition which
goes beyond physical safety, is becoming more of a priority for employers and employees
(Bruning & Turner, 2009; Neal & Griffin, 2002; Raines, 2011; Zacaratos, Barling &
Iverson, 2005). As the focus moves along the continuum from blatant discrimination and
bullying to less obvious counterproductive work behaviours such as incivility and
harassment, how employees are being treated and treating others is an important
consideration within workplaces. Workplace ostracism forms part of this continuum and
represents a difficult behaviour to quantify as frequently the experience is noticed more
for what does not occur than what does (Robinson et al., 2013).

1