Table Of ContentН.А. Лаврова
A COURSEBOOK ON ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ
Учебное пособие
Рекомендовано УМО по образованию в области подготовки
педагогических кадров в качестве учебного пособия
для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся
по специальности 050303.65 – Иностранный язык,
направлению 050100 – Педагогическое образование
(профиль «Иностранный язык (английский)»)
Москва
Издательство «ФЛИНТА»
Издательство «Наука»
2012
УДК 811.111'373(075.8)
Contents
ББК 81.2Англ-3-923
Л13
Reviewers:
Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................4
University, Nataliya N. Morozova.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................6
Dr. Habil., Professor, Head of the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State
Pedagogical University, Elena A. Nikulina.
1. Word .................................................................................................................8
Dr. Habil., Professor, Moscow State Linguistic University, Ekaterina E. Golubkova
Ph.D., Moscow State Regional University of Humanities and Social Sciences, S.A. Reztsova 2. Stylistic Stratification of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms. ................22
Professor, The Department of English Philology, Moscow State Regional University,
Irina I. Shustilova 3. Etymology ......................................................................................................36
Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical
4. Word-building ................................................................................................50
University, Marina D. Rezvetsova
Лаврова Н.А. 5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy
Л13 A Coursebook on English Lexicology : Английская лексико- Euphemisms. Neologisms ..............................................................................69
логия : учеб. пособие / Н.А. Лаврова. – М. : ФЛИНТА : Наука,
6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms.
2012. – 168 с.
Meronyms ......................................................................................................98
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 (ФЛИНТА)
7. Phraseology ..................................................................................................108
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 (Наука)
8. Some Regional Varieties of English ............................................................127
“A Coursebook on English Lexicology” is an assortment of exercises on English lexi-
cology, which are aimed at raising students’ awareness of the notion of the word, it covers References ........................................................................................................136
stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary, its etymology, word-building patterns, the
meaning of the word, the major types of semantic transference, systematic relations between Answer Key .....................................................................................................143
words, English phraseology, some regional varieties of English. Hopefully, it will also aid stu-
dents in understanding systemic relations between words, namely in differentiating between
paronyms, retronyms, neonyms, various types of synonyms, as well as in activating some
vocabulary items centered around specific thematic fields.
The book is meant for foreign language students, for post-graduate students, teachers
and instructors in English lexicology, as well as for a broader audience of philologists and
linguists.
Пособие состоит из 8 глав, рассматривающих такие актуальные лексикологиче-
ские проблемы, как «проблема определения слова», «стилистическая стратификация
словарного состава», «этимология», «значение слова», «словообразование», «фразе-
ология», «некоторые региональные варианты английского языка» и многое другое.
Схемы, графики, таблицы, а также иллюстрации английских фразеологизмов и идиом
ставят своей задачей сделать материал наглядным, доступным и запоминающимся.
Предназначено для студентов английского языка продвинутого уровня обучения
и аспирантов, для преподавателей английского языка, а также для широкого круга чи-
тателей, интересующихся вопросами английского лексикологии.
УДК 811.111'373(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-3-923
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 (ФЛИНТА) © Лаврова Н.А., 2012
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 (Наука) © Издательство «ФЛИНТА», 2012
УДК 811.111'373(075.8)
Contents
ББК 81.2Англ-3-923
Л13
Reviewers:
Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................4
University, Nataliya N. Morozova.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................6
Dr. Habil., Professor, Head of the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State
Pedagogical University, Elena A. Nikulina.
1. Word .................................................................................................................8
Dr. Habil., Professor, Moscow State Linguistic University, Ekaterina E. Golubkova
Ph.D., Moscow State Regional University of Humanities and Social Sciences, S.A. Reztsova 2. Stylistic Stratification of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms. ................22
Professor, The Department of English Philology, Moscow State Regional University,
Irina I. Shustilova 3. Etymology ......................................................................................................36
Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical
4. Word-building ................................................................................................50
University, Marina D. Rezvetsova
Лаврова Н.А. 5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy
Л13 A Coursebook on English Lexicology : Английская лексико- Euphemisms. Neologisms ..............................................................................69
логия : учеб. пособие / Н.А. Лаврова. – М. : ФЛИНТА : Наука,
6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms.
2012. – 168 с.
Meronyms ......................................................................................................98
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 (ФЛИНТА)
7. Phraseology ..................................................................................................108
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 (Наука)
8. Some Regional Varieties of English ............................................................127
“A Coursebook on English Lexicology” is an assortment of exercises on English lexi-
cology, which are aimed at raising students’ awareness of the notion of the word, it covers References ........................................................................................................136
stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary, its etymology, word-building patterns, the
meaning of the word, the major types of semantic transference, systematic relations between Answer Key .....................................................................................................143
words, English phraseology, some regional varieties of English. Hopefully, it will also aid stu-
dents in understanding systemic relations between words, namely in differentiating between
paronyms, retronyms, neonyms, various types of synonyms, as well as in activating some
vocabulary items centered around specific thematic fields.
The book is meant for foreign language students, for post-graduate students, teachers
and instructors in English lexicology, as well as for a broader audience of philologists and
linguists.
Пособие состоит из 8 глав, рассматривающих такие актуальные лексикологиче-
ские проблемы, как «проблема определения слова», «стилистическая стратификация
словарного состава», «этимология», «значение слова», «словообразование», «фразе-
ология», «некоторые региональные варианты английского языка» и многое другое.
Схемы, графики, таблицы, а также иллюстрации английских фразеологизмов и идиом
ставят своей задачей сделать материал наглядным, доступным и запоминающимся.
Предназначено для студентов английского языка продвинутого уровня обучения
и аспирантов, для преподавателей английского языка, а также для широкого круга чи-
тателей, интересующихся вопросами английского лексикологии.
УДК 811.111'373(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-3-923
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 (ФЛИНТА) © Лаврова Н.А., 2012
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 (Наука) © Издательство «ФЛИНТА», 2012
Acknowledgements
The author is deeply indebted to her teacher, instructor and academic
Words are mirrors of their times. By look-
advisor, Dr. Habil., Professor, Elena A. Nikulina for her remarkable for-
bearance, unswerving support, encouragement and inspiration.
My sincere appreciation goes to Professor Nataliya N. Morozova, ing at the areas in which the vocabulary of a
who kindly agreed to read and review the book, bestowed her wise coun-
sel, and suggested the ways to improve and variegate the present work.
language is expanding in a given period, we
I am grateful to Dr. Habil., Professor, Olga G. Chupryna for her com-
ments on some of the contentious issues of the book, which enabled me to
reconsider some of the original statements made in the book. can form a fairly accurate impression of the
I appreciate the help and support provided by Professor Marina D.
Resvetzova, who was very kind and benevolent in her comments and
chief preoccupations of society at that time
whose love of the Word is shared by the present author.
My appreciation is also due to Dr. Habil., Professor, Ekaterina E.
and the points at which the boundaries of
Golubkova, to Ph.D., S.A. Reztsova, and to Ph.D., Professor, Irina I.
Shustilova for a review of the present book.
human endeavor are being advanced.
(John Ayto, 1999. 20th Century Words.
The Story of the New Words in English
over the Last Hundred Years)
Acknowledgements
The author is deeply indebted to her teacher, instructor and academic
Words are mirrors of their times. By look-
advisor, Dr. Habil., Professor, Elena A. Nikulina for her remarkable for-
bearance, unswerving support, encouragement and inspiration.
My sincere appreciation goes to Professor Nataliya N. Morozova, ing at the areas in which the vocabulary of a
who kindly agreed to read and review the book, bestowed her wise coun-
sel, and suggested the ways to improve and variegate the present work.
language is expanding in a given period, we
I am grateful to Dr. Habil., Professor, Olga G. Chupryna for her com-
ments on some of the contentious issues of the book, which enabled me to
reconsider some of the original statements made in the book. can form a fairly accurate impression of the
I appreciate the help and support provided by Professor Marina D.
Resvetzova, who was very kind and benevolent in her comments and
chief preoccupations of society at that time
whose love of the Word is shared by the present author.
My appreciation is also due to Dr. Habil., Professor, Ekaterina E.
and the points at which the boundaries of
Golubkova, to Ph.D., S.A. Reztsova, and to Ph.D., Professor, Irina I.
Shustilova for a review of the present book.
human endeavor are being advanced.
(John Ayto, 1999. 20th Century Words.
The Story of the New Words in English
over the Last Hundred Years)
Introduction ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric
formation: two notions and two words are merged due to some more or
less objective or subjective similarity. The more distant the notions are,
English lexicology is not only a purely theoretical discipline aimed the more striking the emerging blend is likely to be.
to upgrade students’ knowledge of its past, its present and its perspectives The introduction of endocentric, exocentric (bahuvrihi), copulative
for the future, but is also an in-depth practical course with multiple objec- and appositional compounds highlights various semantic and structural
tives, namely: types of compound words and deepens students’ understanding of the
• to inspire students’ curiosity about the past of words; nature and essence of nomination and the features that were chosen as
• to help them differentiate between subtle shades of meaning; the basis of nomination – whether reflecting the essence of the referent
• to facilitate the recognition of different word-building patterns; or seemingly superficial. In the latter case the resultant compound is, as a
• to further the recognition of novel formations, actively used in the rule, idiomatic, metaphorical and evokes vivid imagery.
modern media-discourse; Paraphrasing a text belonging to a different register makes a learner of
• to broaden their repertoire of synonymic ways of referring to real- English sensitive to formal and informal contexts and to stylistic colouring of
ity; words. Ultimately, it is supposed to inculcate in them a sense of appropriate-
• to make students’ English more authentic and idiomatic; ness of a particular word or an expression and stylistic specifics thereof.
• to ultimately make students’ interaction with foreigners smoother Exercises centered around regional varieties of English are meant to
and more gratifying, so that it should become a mutually benefi- raise students’ awareness of different types of English and to get them to
cial experience. understand that they are not to be mixed up. Getting familiar with some of
While writing this book, the author took into account some of the lat- the dialects of the British Isles may prove to be beneficial for learners of
est trends both in theoretical lexicology and in the lexical changes typical English and to facilitate interaction in case of their travelling abroad.
of modern English. It must also be noted that some sections are covered Finding a Russian equivalent for English idioms as well as construct-
in greater detail, while others represent a narrower scale of material. Here ing proverbs from smaller rearranged blocks does not only expand stu-
is the rationale behind some of the exercises offered by the author. dents’ knowledge thereof, but also develops their analytical skills and es-
The exercises on word-building do not only cover traditional and tablishes typological characteristics of both languages. The exercise that
typical word-building patterns in English, such as composition and deri- involves converting a literally described situation into a metaphoric idiom
vation, but also less wide-spread and codified, such as blending (contami- provides entertainment, fun, a diversion from the traditional academic ex-
nation), formations with semi-affixes, combining forms. The rationale ercises and activates students’ mental skills that involve searching for the
behind including such formations is manifold. Firstly, some of them are relevant item in the long-term memory and filling a fitting slot.
traditionally made use of in the formation of terms (combining forms), Each section of the book is divided into two parts – the “Points to
others have gained popularity quite recently and are extensively used in ponder” part and the “Exercises” part. In the first part some theoretical
media-discourse (blending). Secondly, if a word-building pattern becomes questions, tasks as well as theoretical information are provided to facili-
foregrounded, it should not be overlooked. This is the case with blend- tate a transition to the second part, which is comprised of exercises that
ing (or contamination), whose activation is down to several factors: the are related to the topic under consideration.
condensed and compressed form of blends makes them a very efficient Many of the exercises are provided with keys, but only those where we
means of expressing several notions through a single lexeme; it also aids felt learners may have difficulty in finding answers on their own or when
to create a new notion, more often than not, pragmatically and emotion- access to the pertinent reference sources may not easily be available.
6 7
Introduction ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric
formation: two notions and two words are merged due to some more or
less objective or subjective similarity. The more distant the notions are,
English lexicology is not only a purely theoretical discipline aimed the more striking the emerging blend is likely to be.
to upgrade students’ knowledge of its past, its present and its perspectives The introduction of endocentric, exocentric (bahuvrihi), copulative
for the future, but is also an in-depth practical course with multiple objec- and appositional compounds highlights various semantic and structural
tives, namely: types of compound words and deepens students’ understanding of the
• to inspire students’ curiosity about the past of words; nature and essence of nomination and the features that were chosen as
• to help them differentiate between subtle shades of meaning; the basis of nomination – whether reflecting the essence of the referent
• to facilitate the recognition of different word-building patterns; or seemingly superficial. In the latter case the resultant compound is, as a
• to further the recognition of novel formations, actively used in the rule, idiomatic, metaphorical and evokes vivid imagery.
modern media-discourse; Paraphrasing a text belonging to a different register makes a learner of
• to broaden their repertoire of synonymic ways of referring to real- English sensitive to formal and informal contexts and to stylistic colouring of
ity; words. Ultimately, it is supposed to inculcate in them a sense of appropriate-
• to make students’ English more authentic and idiomatic; ness of a particular word or an expression and stylistic specifics thereof.
• to ultimately make students’ interaction with foreigners smoother Exercises centered around regional varieties of English are meant to
and more gratifying, so that it should become a mutually benefi- raise students’ awareness of different types of English and to get them to
cial experience. understand that they are not to be mixed up. Getting familiar with some of
While writing this book, the author took into account some of the lat- the dialects of the British Isles may prove to be beneficial for learners of
est trends both in theoretical lexicology and in the lexical changes typical English and to facilitate interaction in case of their travelling abroad.
of modern English. It must also be noted that some sections are covered Finding a Russian equivalent for English idioms as well as construct-
in greater detail, while others represent a narrower scale of material. Here ing proverbs from smaller rearranged blocks does not only expand stu-
is the rationale behind some of the exercises offered by the author. dents’ knowledge thereof, but also develops their analytical skills and es-
The exercises on word-building do not only cover traditional and tablishes typological characteristics of both languages. The exercise that
typical word-building patterns in English, such as composition and deri- involves converting a literally described situation into a metaphoric idiom
vation, but also less wide-spread and codified, such as blending (contami- provides entertainment, fun, a diversion from the traditional academic ex-
nation), formations with semi-affixes, combining forms. The rationale ercises and activates students’ mental skills that involve searching for the
behind including such formations is manifold. Firstly, some of them are relevant item in the long-term memory and filling a fitting slot.
traditionally made use of in the formation of terms (combining forms), Each section of the book is divided into two parts – the “Points to
others have gained popularity quite recently and are extensively used in ponder” part and the “Exercises” part. In the first part some theoretical
media-discourse (blending). Secondly, if a word-building pattern becomes questions, tasks as well as theoretical information are provided to facili-
foregrounded, it should not be overlooked. This is the case with blend- tate a transition to the second part, which is comprised of exercises that
ing (or contamination), whose activation is down to several factors: the are related to the topic under consideration.
condensed and compressed form of blends makes them a very efficient Many of the exercises are provided with keys, but only those where we
means of expressing several notions through a single lexeme; it also aids felt learners may have difficulty in finding answers on their own or when
to create a new notion, more often than not, pragmatically and emotion- access to the pertinent reference sources may not easily be available.
6 7
1. Word
4. A word is a sound or a combination of sounds, or its repre-
sentation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and com-
municates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme
Points to ponder
or of a combination of morphemes (American Heritage Dic-
tionary, 4th edition, 2000).
Over the years different definitions of the word
have been suggested, some of them are based on the
purely semantic criterion, others put the premium 5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native
on structural, functional, stylistic, communicative or speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isol-
pragmatic aspects of the word. able meaningful element of the language, although linguists
would analyze these further into morphemes (Collins Eng-
Investigate the problems of word definition and answer the fol- lish Dictionary, 6th edition 2007).
lowing questions (do the tasks suggested):
– Comment on the following definitions of the word and choose the 6. A word is the smallest unit of language that can be used in-
one which seems the most appropriate to you. Specify the crite- dependently; such a unit represented in writing or printing,
rion that underlies each definition. Which of the definitions is the usually separated off by spaces (Chambers Dictionary, 9th
least precise? edition, 2003).
1. A word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is pre- – In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out
ceded by a blank space and followed by a blank space or the morpheme as the minimal unit of communication. What is the
punctuation mark. problematic aspect underlying this methodology?
– Enumerate structural and semantic characteristics of the word and
say how it differs from a word-combination. Are there any fuzzy
sets (borderline cases)?
– How can you prove that “washing machine” is a word? Supple
2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.
some other similar cases of a two-unit word.
– Are “wrap up” and “single out” cases of one word or are they two
words?
– What is the difference between a word and a sentence?
3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that
symbolizes and communicates a meaning usually without The notion of “word” is one of the central in
being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use lexicology. However, there is still no unanimous
(Merriam-Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, 2008). opinion as to what the word really is, that is to say,
it is not amenable to an unambiguous definition. The
8 9
1. Word
4. A word is a sound or a combination of sounds, or its repre-
sentation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and com-
municates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme
Points to ponder
or of a combination of morphemes (American Heritage Dic-
tionary, 4th edition, 2000).
Over the years different definitions of the word
have been suggested, some of them are based on the
purely semantic criterion, others put the premium 5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native
on structural, functional, stylistic, communicative or speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isol-
pragmatic aspects of the word. able meaningful element of the language, although linguists
would analyze these further into morphemes (Collins Eng-
Investigate the problems of word definition and answer the fol- lish Dictionary, 6th edition 2007).
lowing questions (do the tasks suggested):
– Comment on the following definitions of the word and choose the 6. A word is the smallest unit of language that can be used in-
one which seems the most appropriate to you. Specify the crite- dependently; such a unit represented in writing or printing,
rion that underlies each definition. Which of the definitions is the usually separated off by spaces (Chambers Dictionary, 9th
least precise? edition, 2003).
1. A word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is pre- – In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out
ceded by a blank space and followed by a blank space or the morpheme as the minimal unit of communication. What is the
punctuation mark. problematic aspect underlying this methodology?
– Enumerate structural and semantic characteristics of the word and
say how it differs from a word-combination. Are there any fuzzy
sets (borderline cases)?
– How can you prove that “washing machine” is a word? Supple
2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.
some other similar cases of a two-unit word.
– Are “wrap up” and “single out” cases of one word or are they two
words?
– What is the difference between a word and a sentence?
3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that
symbolizes and communicates a meaning usually without The notion of “word” is one of the central in
being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use lexicology. However, there is still no unanimous
(Merriam-Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, 2008). opinion as to what the word really is, that is to say,
it is not amenable to an unambiguous definition. The
8 9
term “word” usually designates a structure smaller than a word combina- phenated in COD8 (1990) but open in COD9…” [Jackson H., Zé Amvela
tion, but larger that a single sound segment (Zé Amvela E., 2010). This E., 2010:192]. The almost unpredictable nature of how compounds can or
simple and comprehensible definition is not free from fault: the indefinite should be spelt is summed up by R.W. Zandvoort and H.W. Fowler: “The
article in the English language is a single sound segment and yet it is reader of the last and other sections of this handbook cannot fail to have
definitely a word. Definitions of the word are legion, some of them high- been struck by a lack of consistency in the use of HYPHENS in the writ-
lighting structural, notional, functional, phonological and other aspects ing of compounds. This lack of consistency is entirely in keeping with
of the word (see above). From the structural perspective, a word can be English practice, on which the late H.W. Fowler in his Dictionary of Mod-
defined as a unit of language or speech that consists of one or more mor- ern English Usage (a book to be used with care) expresses himself thus:
phemes at least one of which can be used independently. This is, so to ‘The chaos prevailing among writers or printers or both regarding the use
speak, the ideal scenario, because some words consist of morphemes that of hyphens is discreditable to English education.’ Logic would, of course,
are no longer used in speech independently. Some examples are: receive, prescribe that undoubted compounds, like goldsmith, should be spelt as
conceive, confer, refer, etc. These words consist of a prefix and a remnant single words; that a hyphen should be used when the two elements are
root which is, synchronically, a bound form no longer recognized by the only occasionally combined, and, therefore, to some extent preserve their
majority of native speakers as a meaningful element. individuality in combination (she-wolf); and that the two words should
According to the notional criterion, the word is defined as a linguis- be written apart when they form a group of adjectives + noun, or attrib.
tic unit conveying a single notion. This definition purports to distinguish noun + noun, etc., not a compound (the London streets). The very logic
between a word and a phrase, which conveys not one but at least two of this division, however, makes it difficult to apply in many cases, with
notions. According to the functional criterion the word possesses a fully- the result that it is often ignored in cases of less difficulty. The best advice
fledged nominative function. Unlike that of a word, the functions of a to be given in this matter is: when in doubt, consult the Concise Oxford
morpheme and a phrase can be, respectively, defined as constitutive and a Dictionary” [Zandvoort, 288:1962].
poly-nominative, the function of a sentence being predicative-communi- In the traditional sense, the word consists of at least one free lexical
cative. According to the phonological criterion, the word is a combination morpheme, “but it can also be made up of a whole series of lexical mor-
of sounds preceded and followed by pauses and conveying a meaning phemes, like beer-drinker, theatergoer, segregationist, or denationaliza-
which distinguishes it from other words in a language. tion. Leech … gives the examples drum-majorettishly and railway-sta-
One of the most daunting lexicological tasks concerning the word tion refreshment room” [Lipka, 2002:89].
is to distinguish between a compound word and a word-combination (a One of the meaningful differences between a compound and a word
phrase). Some compounds represent the so-called fuzzy sets, that is, lan- combination is that the meaning of a free phrase can usually be inferred
guage elements whose status veers. What is meant here is that orthograph- from its constituents, whereas “compounds are characterized semantically
ically compounds can be spelt solid, hyphenated and spaced (A. Cruse, by the fact that they tend to acquire specialized meanings, thus becoming
Jackson H., G.G. Bondarchuk): “Note that the orthographic treatment of very much like idioms. Only in rare cases is the meaning of a compound
compounds is by no means consistent. Some are written as one word derived from that of its constituents in the literal sense. In most cases, the
(with or without a hyphen between two roots), while others are writ- meaning of at least one of the constituents is somehow obscured” [Jack-
ten as two or more words (emphasis mine)” [Jackson H., Zé Amvela E., son H., Zé Amvela E., 2010:94].
2010:92]. “Compounds may be spelt either solid (landmark) or hyphen- Compounds are also prototypically characterized by a single primary
ated (land-law) or open (land mass). There may be some variation espe- stress that falls on the first stem of a compound. If a compound, how-
cially between hyphenated and open compounds: land-crab appears hy- ever, consists of three or more morphemes it is rarely the first stem that
10 11
