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Chinese original edition © 2006 China Renmin University Press
Translated by Lan Fangfang, Liu Bingxin and Liu Hui
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978-981-4332-68-2 (epub)
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Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................vii
Chapter 8
Class Structure in the Qing Dynasty and
the Class Struggle in the Early 18th Century ................................
1
Chapter 9
Russia’s Early Aggression against China and
the Anti-Aggression Struggles of
Various Nationalities of China ..................................................
83
Chapter 10
Unification of Ethnic Minority Areas on
the Frontier and the Consolidation and
Development of a Multiethnic Country ....................................
137
Chapter 11
Cultural Policy and the Development of
Sinology in the Qing Dynasty ..................................................
225
Notes ........................................................................................
277
Glossary ...................................................................................
303
References ................................................................................
309
Index ........................................................................................
319
Preface
The Qing Dynasty was a feudal institution with the Manchu, a minority in
China, as the upper class and was the last feudal monarchical dynasty in the
long feudal history of China. The Qing Dynasty ruled China, a vast country, for
two hundred and sixty eight years. China was an independent feudal state in
the stage of late feudal society when the Qing rulers broke through the border
in the year 1664 to usurp the achievements of the Peasants’ War in the late
Ming Dynasty and establish its rule over the whole country. After more than
one hundred years of development, the Qing Dynasty reached its peak in the
mid-eighteenth century. Within the vast territory the unity of all ethnic groups
in China was further enhanced, and the feudal politics, economy and culture
were developed to their peak. Following this, due to the growth of internal
contradictions in the feudal society and the bud of capitalism in China, the crisis
of feudal rule occurred. In the late eighteenth century, peasant uprisings broke
out all over the country. As a result, the Qing Dynasty began to decline. At this
time the Western European countries had already completed their bourgeois
revolutions and moved into a capitalist society, plundering their colonies all
over the world. Finally, feudal China became one of their important targets of
predation. With the outbreak of the Opium War in 1840, the armed capitalist
invaders opened the door to China. From then on China gradually stepped
into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society and onto the stage of modern
history. At the same time as imperialism colluded with feudalism in China
to force China to beome a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, the Chinese
people never gave up their fight against the imperialists and their lackeys. In
the Opium War, the Taiping Revolution, the Sino-French War, the Sino-Japanese
War, the Hundred Days Reform and the Boxer Rebellion, the Chinese people
demonstrated their indomitable courage and fighting spirit. In the Revolution
of 1911 the bourgeoisie overthrew the Qing Government, which had become the
lackey of imperialism, ending the autocratic monarchy of more than 2,000 years
in China and establishing a democratic republic.
The "long river" of the history was surging forward. These two hundred
and sixty years witnessed the rise, prosperity, decline and downfall of the
Aisin Giorro dynasty, but more importantly it witnessed the development,
creativity and struggle of the great people of all nationalities in China. During
this long and arduous period, the Chinese people suffered enormous hardship
and frustration, created beautiful ideas and hopes and undertook continuous
exploration and combat. In the most difficult years of hardship the Chinese
people still left an extremely rich and valuable heritage. In this two hundred
and sixty eight years we can find innumerable passionate and epic battle
vii
Preface
stories; strong, brave, diligent and wise figures; brilliant economic and cultural
achievements; and vivid and rich experience and lessons. The Qing Dynasty
is an important chapter in China's long history, a great turning point between
the past and future and a ladder used by the Chinese people to wage arduous
struggles, grope in the dark, get through the "fog" and go forward to the future.
Since the history of Qing Dynasty is close to us and closely associated with
practical struggle, it is worth serious study and research.
This book describes the history from the rise of the Manchu to the Opium
War which broke out in 1840, after which China walked into its modern era in
which the natures of society and revolution began to change dramatically and
were fundamentally different from the early and mid Qing Dynasty. Various
works of detailed modern Chinese history have been published, with which the
basic content of this book can link up.
This book is written by the Institute of Qing History of Renmin University
of China and edited by Dai Yi assisted by Ma Ruheng. Chapter 1 of Volume 1
was written by Li Hongbin, Chapter 2 by Lin Tiejun, Chapter 3 by Du Wenkai,
Chapter 4 by Zhang Jinfan, Chapter 5 by Ma Ruheng, Zhang Jinfan and Ma
Jinke, Chapters 6 and 7 by Li Hua. At first, part of Volume 2 of this book was
drafted by Ma Xin, Ma Ruheng, Ma Jinke, Li Hua, Zhang Jinfan, Hu Mingyang
and Qin Baoqi et al. Later, due to the structural changes in the book and
personnel changes, the writing work was re-organized. Finally, Chapter 8 was
written by Luo Ming, Wang Sizhi and Lin Tiejun, Chapter 10 by Mu Ruheng,
Chapter 12 by Lu Yingfan, Wang Daocheng and Chen Yalan, Chapter 13 by
Li Hua, Chapter 14 by Lin Tiejun and Ma Ruheng, and Chapter 15 by Wang
Junyi. Dai Yi wrote the other chapters and revised the whole book. Illustrations
were collected by Li Hua and Li Hongbin. We would like to express thanks
to institutions such as the Chinese History Museum and the First Historical
Archives of China which provided great assistance in the collection of
illustrations.
We sincerely look forward to any suggestions on the shortcomings of this
book.
Dai Yi
viii
8
Chapter
Class Structure in the
Qing Dynasty and the
Class Struggle in the
Early 18th Century
