Table Of ContentA C O N C I S E
E N C Y C L O P E D I A
of the
PHILOSOPHY OF
RELIGION
other books in the same series
AConciseEncyclopediaofJudaism,DanCohn-Serbok,ISBN1–85168–176–0
AConciseEncyclopediaofHinduism,KlausK.Klostermaier,ISBN1–85168–175–2
AConciseEncyclopediaofChristianity,GeoffreyParrinder,ISBN1–85168–174–4
AConciseEncyclopediaofBuddhism,JohnPowers,ISBN1–85168–233–3
AConciseEncyclopediaoftheBaha´’´ıFaith,PeterSmith,ISBN1–85168–184–1
AConciseEncyclopediaofIslam,GordonD.Newby,ISBN1–85168–295–3
related titles published by oneworld
EthicsintheWorldReligions,EditedbyJosephRunzoandNancyM.Martin,
ISBN1–85168–247–3
TheFifthDimension,JohnHick,ISBN1–85168–191–4
GlobalPhilosophyofReligion:AShortIntroduction,JosephRunzo,
ISBN1–85168–235–X
God:AGuideforthePerplexed,KeithWard,ISBN1–85168–284–8
God,FaithandtheNewMillennium,KeithWard,ISBN1–85168–155–8
Love,SexandGenderintheWorldReligions,EditedbyJosephRunzoandNancyM.Martin,
ISBN1–85168–223–6
TheMeaningofLifeintheWorldReligions,EditedbyJosephRunzoandNancyM.Martin,
ISBN1–85168–200–7
ThePhenomenonofReligion,MoojanMomen,ISBN1–85168–161–2
A C O N C I S E
E N C Y C L O P E D I A
of the
PHILOSOPHY OF
RELIGION
ANTHONY C. THISELTON
A CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Oneworld Publications
(Sales and Editorial)
185 Banbury Road
Oxford OX2 7AR
England
www.oneworld-publications.com
# Anthony C. Thiselton 2002
All rights reserved.
Copyright under Berne Convention
A CIP record for this title is available
from the British Library
ISBN 1–85168–301–1
Cover design by Design Deluxe
Typeset by LaserScript, Mitcham, UK
Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow
NL08
Contents
Preface and acknowledgements vi
A Concise Encyclopedia of the Philosophy of Religion 1
Chronology 329
Index of names 337
Preface and acknowledgements
Aims, scope and target readership
Thefollowingselectionofsubjectentrieshasbeenshapedinthelightof
many years of feedback from my own students. I have asked them
what themes, thinkers and problems in philosophy of religion they have
found most stimulating or rewarding, and also where they have needed
most help, clarification and explanation. Their answers have been both
formal and anonymous, and informal and personal.
In addition to the criterion of ‘professional competency’ in philosophy
of religion, I have explored issues where pressing problems arise from
arguments for or against belief in God, and from differences between
diverse religious traditions. For many, this subject combines academic
rigourwithpersonalandpracticalissuesaboutreligiousbelief.Ihaveaimed
to set out the arguments of major religious traditions and the counter-
arguments of their critics with fairness and integrity, even if I myself find
nothing irrational about belief in God, to express this as a bare minimum.
Itismyhope,therefore,that this volumewillnot onlyfill a needed gap
asastudenttextbook,butthatitwillalsoprovideareadyworkofreference
and explanation for those readers who wish to explore issues of belief for
theirownsake.Tothisextent,Iadmittowritingforthegeneralenquireras
well as for students who seek a clear, useful textbook for essays and
examinations.
At what level is this aimed? Most of my own classes in philosophy of
religion have been for second-year degree students. However, they have
included also first yearsand final years.Mosthavebeen honoursstudents
in theology and/or in philosophy, but many have majored in other
subjects. I have been sufficiently impressed by the standards of incoming
students who have taken philosophy of religion at ‘A’ level to have no
vii Prefaceandacknowledgments
doubt that the following pages will also provide them with a readable
textbook. I point out below that the regular use of cross-references will
explain virtually every unfamiliar technical term, and will introduce
unfamiliar thinkers.
Style, structure and more on level
I have made a particular point of keeping to short paragraphs, and as far as
possibletoshortsentences.Normallyallentriesexceptthoseoflessthanthree
hundred words have been divided by the use of sub-headings, so that no
readerneedfeelintimidatedbylong,unbroken,pagesofargument.Thesub-
headings also provide easy maps of where arguments lead.
This is the first of my eight books (written to date) without substantial
footnotes. This is for the purpose of simplicity and clarity. However, those
referencebooksthatfailtoidentifysignificantsourcesformajorquotations
or arguments lack, to my mind, a resource that may prove to be helpful.
Where precise sources are appropriate, authors, titles, publishers and page
numbers are cited in brackets in the text. This both relieves the reader of
having to take everything on trust, and allows the student to follow up
important issues independently.
The system of cross-references and of dates of thinkers or other sources
isakeyfeature.Thesecross-referencesassistthosereaderswhoneedinstant
explanationsofterms,orquickinformationaboutthefurtherconsequences
of arguments under consideration. Dates provide appropriate historical
contextsfortheaccurateunderstandingofthoughtinthelightofthetimes.
Theologians and philosophers often place different weight respectively
upon these: they are more frequently emphasized in theology, but their
inclusion prejudices no argument. A further chronological chart is added,
without any pre-judgements about the importance of what names may
feature in it.
Acknowledgements and thanks
Mrs Carol Dakin has typed this manuscript onto disks throughout. I am
deeplygratefultoherforthismagnificentandexcellentwork.Iregularlygave
her unclear handwritten material, which she returned promptly, efficiently
andwithconstantgoodjudgementwhereguessesmusthavebeeninevitable.
Myformersecretariesobservedthatovertheyearstwoqualificationsformy
ProfessorshipandHeadshipofDepartmentatNottinghamwererequiredfor
this post: first, to have taught previously in the University of Durham; and
second,tohaveillegible writing.I was dulyappointed.
AConciseEncyclopediaofthePhilosophyofReligion viii
My weakest points of expertise, I concede, relate to the articles on
Islamicphilosophy,onHinduphilosophy,andonBuddhistphilosophy.Iam
deeply indebted to Dr Hugh Goddard, Reader in Islamic Theology in the
University of Nottingham, for advice on the entry on Islamic Philosophy,
and related Islamic thinkers. Likewise, I am very grateful to Dr Philip
Goodchild, Senior Lecturer in this Department, for advice and correction
on Buddhist philosophy. Dr Brian Carr, Reader in the Department of
Philosophy at Nottingham, has given me valuable help, for which I thank
himwarmly,onHinduphilosophyandHinduthinkers.Heisalsoco-editor
of the Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy.
During the final month before the submission of the manuscript, I was
Scholar in Residence for 2002 in Union University, Jackson, Tennessee. I
shouldliketothankUnionUniversity,DrRandallBush,andhiscolleagues
for giving me every possible facility to complete the manuscript on time,
including my sending quantities of faxed handwriting to Mrs Dakin, and
editede-mailstomywifeathome.MytimeatUnionUniversitywasavery
happy one.
Home life often suffers during these undertakings, and my wife
Rosemary continued to put up with my working every day into the late
evening even though my previous book of some 1,500 pages had made the
same relentless demands for several years without any interval between
these books. She went the second mile of reading typescripts for errors,
checking through disks, typing revisions, and undertaking related tasks. I
amsogratefulforthisforbearanceandforherwork.Asbefore,MrsSheila
Reesalsoundertooksomeproof-readingataperiodofhighpressure,andI
thank her most warmly.
Finally, I value immensely the encouragement received from colleagues,
fromoneortwoclosefriends,andfromsomeformerstudents,topersevere
with yet another book which they generously encouraged me to think was
worthwhile, in spite of other wide-ranging professional and church
commitments. Their encouragement has been a special and needed gift.
Ms Victoria Warner of Oneworld Publications has also been among these
encouragers, and I thank her for her patient advice and support.
Anthony C. Thiselton,
Department of Theology,
University of Nottingham
Good Friday, 2002
A
a fortiori Clearly what is true merely by defini-
tion,orwhatisentailedentirelybylogical
Thetermdenotesanargumentthatapplies
reasoning,belongstotherealmofapriori
‘all the more’, or ‘with greater force’. In
logic, if a given consequence follows argument; while inferences drawn from
empirical observations of the everyday
from a case that is actually weaker, a
world (including the natural sciences)
fortiorithatconsequencewillfollow‘from
belong to the realm of a posteriori argu-
a stronger’ (Latin, a fortiori) argument.
ment. (See also analytic statements;
This logical notion has been used since
God,argumentsfortheexistenceof;
ancient times. Traditionally it features in
Kant;empiricism.)
Rabbi Hillel’s seven ‘rules of interpreta-
tion’ concerning what may be inferred
fromabiblicaltext. a priori
The term (Latin) denotes that which is
a posteriori
priorto,orindependentof,humanexperi-
Beliefs or truths that are established by a enceorobservation.Itthereforestandsin
posteriori arguments or knowledge are contrast to what is argueda posteriori,
derived from evidence, experience, or i.e. from what is confirmed or discon-
observationoftheworld.Thetermstands firmed from subsequent experience or
incontrasttoapriori,whichdenotesthat observation. The clearest examples of a
whichispriorto,andindependentof,such priori propositions are analytic state-
experienceorobservation. ments, i.e. those that are true (or those
A posteriori arguments depend upon that are justified) on the basis of a priori
empirical evidence, which subsequently conceptual definition: e.g. ‘all bachelors
confirms or disconfirms what has been are unmarried’, ‘all circles are round’.
asserted as true, or as possibly true. In Theseremainincontestableindependently
philosophyofreligionthecosmological of observations about particular bache-
argument for the existence of God lors, or about a circle that I might try to
characteristically begins with experience draw.
or observations about the world, in con- Thusapriori(fromfirstprinciple)may
trast to the ontological argument, beappliedtoargumentsortopropositions
which turns on logical questions about or statements. However, their logical
theconceptofGod. currency is often either merely formal
