Table Of ContentSHEDDING LIGHT ON A MUDDLED FIELD:
A CHRISTIAN ETHICAL APPRAISAL
OF TRANSFORMING AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
by
ELKE ANNETTE MEIER
submitted in accordance with the requirements for
the degree of
MASTER OF THEOLOGY IN THEOLOGICAL ETHICS
– WITH SPECIALISATION IN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN CONTEXT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: PROF L KRETZSCHMAR
JOINT SUPERVISOR: PROF V KESSLER
FEBRUARY 2014
Declaration
Student number: 45322643
I declare that the dissertation entitled “SHEDDING LIGHT ON A MUDDLED FIELD: A
CHRISTIAN ETHICAL APPRAISAL OF TRANSFORMING AND TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP” is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been
indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.
Burbach, February 2014
Elke Meier
Summary
Title: SHEDDING LIGHT ON A MUDDLED FIELD: A CHRISTIAN ETHICAL
APPRAISAL OF TRANSFORMING AND TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
By: Elke Annette Meier
Degree: Master of Theology
Subject: Theological Ethics
Supervisor: Prof. Louise Kretzschmar
Joint Supervisor: Prof. Volker Kessler
Summary: Principles of “transforming leadership” have been widely promoted
since the publication of James McGregor Burns’ book Leadership,
especially among Christian leaders. The pu rpose of this study is to
examine the ethical foundations of his model and Bernard Bass’
“transformational leadership”. Imprecise use of the terms
“transforming”, “charismatic”, and “transformational” leads to an
adoption of methods without adequate unders tanding of the
underlying value system. This literature review compares and
evaluates the source texts within a framework of world view,
intention, character and menschenbild , as well as the Christian
ethical mandates of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Valuing the imago Dei in
others has significant implications for a leader -follower
relationship. Bonhoeffer’s mandates will help leaders reflect their
position within their organisations and the wider society. Though
the incentive for this research was leadership within the context of
the Wycliffe Global Alliance, its findings will be relevant to Christian
leadership in general, especially in intercultural contexts.
Key Terms: Transformational leadership ; Transforming leadership; Charismatic
leadership; Christian ethics; imago Dei; James McGregor Burns;
Bernard Bass ; Dietrich Bonhoeffer; Vision; Character
i
Acknowledgements
Writing and finishing this dissertation would not have been possible without the input of
many people within my community. I am deeply grateful for their contributions in so many
different ways.
My ministry is made possible by people who participate in it through financial giving and
prayer. Without their faithful support I would not be able to participate in the work of the
Wycliffe Global Alliance, and without them this dissertation would certainly not have been
finished. Thank you!
I have had the privilege to work under leaders whose encouragement, challenge, and ap-
preciation could not be overestimated. A big thank you to Burkhard Schöttelndreyer, for en-
couraging me to start this study programme, and to Frank Lautenschlager, his successor, for
giving me freedom to pursue and finish this study. My colleagues in the Europe Area Office of
the Wycliffe Global Alliance have over the last months often had to be very patient with a
rather uncooperative colleague who buried herself in her corner of the office. Thank you!
And not to forget my parents who nurtured my love for books and reading from an early
age. Their unwavering support through all the stages of this process was a source of
encouragement. Thank you!
Equally, many people have been involved directly in the process of finishing this
dissertation. I deeply appreciate the support of my supervisors, Professor Louise Kretzschmar
and Professor Volker Kessler. Throughout the process of this dissertation they modeled for
me the kind of leadership I was writing about: Challenging, encouraging, advising, or
correcting me, but always in a way which made me feel deeply appreciated as a person. Their
example has left a deep imprint on my life. Thank you!
Friends help us sharpen our thoughts. I remember very well the talk in Angelika Marsch’s
living room when we first thought about the interconnectedness of world view, intention,
character, and menschenbild, the concept which in the end was so important for this
dissertation. And I cannot count the times I interrupted my colleague Amy Barnes to find out
how to express this or that concept in English. Thank you!
The final product would not be what it is without the English edit of Shirley McHale from
MissionAssist, and without the incredible support of the people working for Citavi, the
literature programme I used. Thank you!
My biggest thank you, however, goes to God, from whom I have received everything I am,
whose Spirit was a constant companion throughout the process, and who has given me
strength to actually complete this work. THANK YOU!
Burbach, February 2014
Elke Meier
ii
Table of Contents
Summary and keywords .................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... ii
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. vi
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Leadership theories through the centuries ........................................................................ 2
1.2. Leadership theorising—a muddled field ............................................................................. 3
1.2.1. Confusion within the field of TRANSFORMING LEADERSHIP ............................................. 4
1.2.1.1. Confusion about terms .............................................................................................. 4
1.2.1.2. Confusion about origins/foundations ..................................................................... 5
1.2.1.3. Confusion about concepts ......................................................................................... 5
1.3. Research question and goal for the dissertation ............................................................... 7
1.4. Relevance of the dissertation to leadership studies and theological ethics ................... 9
1.5. Relevance of the dissertation for the Wycliffe Global Alliance ...................................... 11
1.5.1. History of the Wycliffe Global Alliance ..................................................................... 11
1.5.1.1. William Cameron Townsend ................................................................................... 11
1.5.1.2. Wycliffe and SIL ........................................................................................................ 14
1.5.1.3. Cameron Townsend and TRANSFORMING LEADERSHIP ............................................... 16
1.5.2. Current developments affecting the Wycliffe Global Alliance ............................... 17
1.5.2.1. Intraorganisational developments ........................................................................ 17
1.5.2.2. External developments and the move to a Global Alliance ................................ 18
1.5.2.3. Shift in organisational focus ................................................................................... 19
1.5.3. Leadership challenges ................................................................................................. 19
1.5.3.1. Challenges concerning relational ethics ............................................................... 20
1.5.3.2. Challenges relating to organisational ethics ........................................................ 21
1.5.3.3. Ethics and the ecclesiastical tradition ................................................................... 22
1.5.3.4. Challenges relating to social ethics ....................................................................... 22
1.5.3.5. Leader selection ....................................................................................................... 23
1.5.3.6. Leadership training ................................................................................................. 24
1.6. Structure of the dissertation .............................................................................................. 26
2. Methodology ............................................................................................................ 29
2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 29
2.2. Research design .................................................................................................................... 29
2.3. Definition of parameters ..................................................................................................... 32
2.3.1. Leadership models ....................................................................................................... 33
2.3.2. Christian ethics and moral philosophy ..................................................................... 34
2.3.2.1. Theological ethics .................................................................................................... 34
2.3.2.2. Normative ethics ...................................................................................................... 37
2.3.2.3. Applied ethics ........................................................................................................... 40
2.3.2.4. Christian ethics and Bonhoeffer ............................................................................ 41
2.3.3. Cultural leadership ...................................................................................................... 44
2.3.4. Christian leadership .................................................................................................... 46
2.3.5. Evaluative parameters ................................................................................................. 48
2.3.5.1. The role of world view............................................................................................. 51
2.3.5.2. Intention ................................................................................................................... 53
2.3.5.3. Character................................................................................................................... 55
2.3.5.4. Menschenbild ........................................................................................................... 58
2.4. Introduction to literature ................................................................................................... 61
2.5. Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 64
2.6. Ethical considerations for this dissertation ..................................................................... 66
2.7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 67
3. TRANSFORMING LEADERSHIP—the historical development ............................................. 69
3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 69
iii
3.2. Max Weber and the notion of CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP ..................................................... 70
3.2.1. Source of the concept and general overview ........................................................... 70
3.2.2. Max Weber ................................................................................................................... 72
3.3. Leadership models leading up to TRANSFORMING LEADERSHIP ............................................ 77
3.3.1. Robert House, Boas Shamir and Michael Arthur ..................................................... 81
3.3.1.1. Robert House’s 1976 theory of CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP ....................................... 83
3.3.1.2. The 1993 self-concept based theory of Shamir, House and Arthur .................. 84
3.3.2. Robert Greenleaf and SERVANT LEADERSHIP ................................................................. 86
3.4. TRANSFORMING and TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ............................................................... 89
3.4.1. James MacGregor Burns ............................................................................................. 90
3.4.2. Bernard M. Bass ........................................................................................................... 96
3.4.2.1. The “Full Range of Leadership” ............................................................................. 98
3.4.2.2. Changing perception of TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ...................................... 100
3.5. New Developments: Authentic leadership ..................................................................... 101
3.6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 103
4. The relationship between the models.................................................................... 105
4.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 105
4.2. Transactional or transforming/transformational? ...................................................... 106
4.2.1. The essence of a transactional relationship .......................................................... 107
4.2.2. The effects of TRANSACTIONAL and TRANSFORMING/TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP .. 108
4.2.3. The goals of TRANSACTIONAL and TRANSFORMING/TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ..... 109
4.3. Transforming or transformational? ............................................................................... 112
4.4. Charismatic and/or transformational? .......................................................................... 116
4.4.1. The changing face of charisma—an area of creative tension .............................. 118
4.4.1.1. Weber’s charisma model and the newer models of CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP ... 118
4.4.1.2. Neo-Charismatic leadership models ................................................................... 121
4.4.1.3. Sociological versus psychological explanations of charisma .......................... 125
4.4.2. “Intention” in a charismatic leader–follower–relationship ................................ 127
4.5. TRANSFORMING/TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP and SERVANT LEADERSHIP ........................... 130
4.6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 132
5. The claim of TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP .............................................................. 135
5.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 135
5.2. Ethical foundations of TRANSFORMING/TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ............................ 137
5.2.1. Ethical foundations of Burns ................................................................................... 139
5.2.2. Ethical foundations of Bass ...................................................................................... 141
5.2.3. Other authors concerned with TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP and ethics ............ 142
5.3. The dark side of TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ............................................................... 147
5.3.1. Pseudotransformational/inauthentic leadership ................................................. 151
5.3.2. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP—leadership model or ideology? ............................ 152
5.3.2.1. The role of vision ................................................................................................... 154
5.3.2.2. The role of motivation .......................................................................................... 157
5.3.2.3. The role of Values ................................................................................................. 161
5.3.3. Tourish and the question of power ......................................................................... 164
5.3.4. Neuberger and the question of affiliation .............................................................. 168
5.4. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP in an intercultural context ............................................. 175
5.4.1. World view ................................................................................................................. 176
5.4.2. Intention ..................................................................................................................... 180
5.4.3. Character .................................................................................................................... 181
5.4.4. Menschenbild ............................................................................................................... 182
6. Implications and conclusions for a Christian context ........................................... 183
6.1. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP and Christian ethics ........................................................ 185
6.1.1. Freedom and responsibility in relation to TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ........... 185
6.1.2. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP in light of Bonhoeffer’s mandates ......................... 187
6.2. Implications for Wycliffe .................................................................................................. 193
iv
6.3. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 196
7. Appendix ............................................................................................................... 199
7.1. Propositions of House’s 1976 charismatic leadership theory ...................................... 199
7.2. Propositions of Shamir, House & Arthur’s motivational theory of
charismatic leadership ...................................................................................................... 199
7.3. Components of Conger & Kanungo’s behavioural theory
of charismatic leadership ................................................................................................. 201
7.4. Mission, Vision and Core Values of the Wycliffe Global Alliance ................................ 202
7.4.1. Mission ........................................................................................................................ 202
7.4.2. Vision ........................................................................................................................... 202
7.4.3. Core Values ................................................................................................................. 202
8. Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 203
Figures
Figure 1: New publications per year with the keyword “transformational leadership” ........... 1
Figure 2: Overview of the methodology ......................................................................................... 31
Figure 3: Levels of culture following Kwast (2009) ....................................................................... 46
Figure 4: Christian leadership in dialogue with management sciences, theological ethics
and cultural anthropology ............................................................................................. 47
Figure 5: Relationships in a leadership situation which necessitate ethical consideration ... 49
Figure 6: World view, intention, character, and menschenbild as interrelated paradigms ...... 52
Figure 7: Intention as evaluative paradigm .................................................................................. 54
Figure 8: Development of leadership theories .............................................................................. 78
Figure 9: Focus of study in early leadership theories .................................................................. 80
Figure 10: Elements of the “Full Range of Leadership” in order of effectiveness ...................... 98
Figure 11: Burns’ and Bass’ starting point for evaluation ........................................................... 110
Figure 12: Evaluating CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP ................................................................................ 127
Figure 13: Ethical Leadership in three dimensions according to Kanungo and Mendonca
(1998:137) ........................................................................................................................ 145
Figure 14: CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP – changing terminology ......................................................... 152
Figure 15: Hierarchy of needs according to Maslow .................................................................... 158
Figure 16: Relationships of responsibility for leader and follower ............................................ 185
Tables
Table 1: Legitimate authority according to Weber ....................................................................... 73
Table 2: Main variations of Weber’s conception of charisma according to Wang (1997) ........ 75
Table 3: Weber’s charisma concept and later leadership theories ............................................. 77
Table 4: Personal leadership according to Downton .................................................................... 90
Table 5: Characteristics of leadership versus rulership according to Burns ([1978] 2005) ..... 92
Table 6: Effects of TRANSACTIONAL versus TRANSFORMING/TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ............ 109
Table 7: Characteristics of transforming versus transformational leaders ............................ 116
Table 8: Distinctive features of transformational and servant leaders according to
Parolini (2007:5–10) .......................................................................................................... 132
Table 9: Integration and commitment in organisations according to Etzioni
(Neuberger 2002:208) ....................................................................................................... 170
v
Abbreviations
ALD Authentic Leadership Development
FRLM Full Range of Leadership Model
GLOBE Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
HR Human Resources
IC Individualised Consideration
II Idealised Influence
IM Inspirational Motivation
IS Intellectual Stimulation
LBDQ Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire
LPC Least Preferred Coworker
MbE Management by Exception
MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
NGO Non-governmental Organisation
SIL Summer Institute of Linguistics
WBT Wycliffe Bible Translators
WBTI Wycliffe Bible Translators International
WGA Wycliffe Global Alliance
vi
