4.1.2.2 Caste and Denomination in Andhra Christianity - Dr. Martinus

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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
4_._1_.2_._2_ _ C_a_s_t_e _a_n_d_ D__e_n_o_m_i_n_a_ti_o_n_ i_n_ A__n_d_h_ra_ _C_h_r_is_t_ia_n_i_t_y
It is a fact that different denominations or different churches of the same denomination
( t h e r e a r e f o r i n s t a n c e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t L u t h e r a n C h u r c h e s i n A n d h r a P r a d e s h ) d o n o t j o i n
because they fear problems on the basis of caste origin. 366Especially Malas and Madigas have
a deep-rooted hatred against each other.367
I t s e e m s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e , t h a t c o n f e s s i o n a l i s m , w h i c h i s t h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r t h e
s c h i s m s i n t h e We s t e r n c o u n t r i e s , d o e s n o t c a u s e t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n
churches. 368 In Tirupati, e.g., there is a Baptist family which has joined the Lutheran Church
a s l o n g a s t h e y w o u l d s t a y i n T i r u p a t i , b e c a u s e t h e r e i s n o B a p t i s t c o n g r e g a t i o n . O n t h e
doctrinalbasis,therewouldbenowayfortheBaptiststojointheLutherans,eventemporarily.
However,thefamilyparticipatesevenintheHolycommunion.Thesameoccurswithafamily
which belongs to the Salvation Army3 69, which has joined the Lutheran community, because
there is no community of the Salvation Army found in Tirupati.
T h e o n l y s e p a r a t i o n o f t w o d i f f e r e n t d e n o m i n a t i o n s w h i c h i s e v e n s t r o n g e r t h a n i n
E u r o p e i s t h e o n e b e t w e e n R o m a n C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s . O n e r e a s o n i s f o u n d i n t h e
history of the missionary work: A strong separatism was kept up by the missionaries already
inthebeginning.AtthetimewhenWesternmissionariescametoIndia,ProtestantandRoman
Catholic Christians did not have any contact with each other in their country of origin.370
Another reason appears to be the different approach in missionary work. The Roman
Catholic Church does allow the converts to use and to practise some customs which they were
following as long as they were Hindus. The Protestant churches, however, are quite strictly
prohibiting customs which appear to have a Hindu background.371
366. e.g. the Andhra Evangelical Lutheran Church counts about 25% Madigas, while the South
Andhra Lutheran Church mostly consists of Malas. A merger of these two Lutheran churches
in Andhra Pradesh is unlikely, because the Malas of the SALC do not want their property to
fall into the hands of Madiga Christians.
367. See M.E. Prabhakar, Andhra Christians…, p. 21. He states that the rivalry between Malas
and Madigas has assumed unhealthy proportions in the recent years.
368. This becomes obvious in the union of the CSI as well as the CNI. Both unite churches with
m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r b a s i c d o c t r i n e s , b u t t h e q u e s t i o n s m o s t d i s c u s s e d w e r e t h o s e
c o n c e r n i n g a u t h o r i t y a n d l e a d e r s h i p . O n e r e a s o n m a y b e t h e l a c k o f a h i s t o r y o f
r e f o r m a t i o n . W h i l e i n E u r o p e n e w d e n o m i n a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d o n a c c o u n t o f fi g h t s o v e r
d o c t r i n a l d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e I n d i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e C h r i s t i a n i t y i n A n d h r a
Pradesh, where the mission societies of various denominations did not interfere in the other’s
work and area, did not have any reason to fight over such issues. On the contrary, many a
times a Lutheran is ready to visit the worships of an evangelical or any other church (except
the Roman Catholic Church), the doctrines of which would not at all meat those of the
Lutheran church, be it the Pe ntecostals, Brethren of Christ or others, and vice versa. The
most important reason for choosing the worship which one is going to attend is either the
social determination by the caste system, or, in case one has a more liberal view of the
caste system (which is mostly the case among evangelical Christians), the way how the
gospel is preached. Cf. also the section 3.6.3
369. see also the section on the Salvation Army on page 64
370. The attempt of Roman Catholic missionaries to baptize people who had previously been
under the care of Protestant missionaries, caused also a deep atrocity between these two
Christian factions, which was adopted by the Indian Christians who were baptized in fear of
the Roman Catholic missionaries.
371. see chapter 5 on this issue. There, it becomes clear that the prohibition of certain customs
does not have much effect on the day-to-day life of the Christians, and it does also not
draw any consequences if one follows such customs. In fact, many pastors say that they
have to tolerate these customs, because they were common and the Hindu neighbours
w o u l d b e t a k e n a b a c k i f t h e y s e e t h e C h r i s t i a n s c o m p l e t e l y r e f r a i n f r o m a n y o f t h e
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
T h e m a j o r r e a s o n s f o r s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y i n t o d i f f e r e n t
denominations therefore appear to be the following (in order of importance):
1. t h e c a s t e b a c k g r o u n d ( i n c l u d i n g t h e r e j e c t i o n t o s h a r e t h e p o w e r o v e r c h u r c h
property 372 and church members with Christians of an inferior caste background or
the fear to lose power to Christians of a superior caste background)
2. the different approach towards Hindu customs
3. doctrinal differences
4_._1_.2_._3_ _ T_h_e_ _C_a_s_te_ _S_y_st_e_m_ _a_s_ a_ R__e_a_so_n_ _f_o_r _th_e_ _C_o_n_v_e_r_si_o_n_ t_o_ C__h_ri_s_ti_a_n_it__y
To b e c o m e a C h r i s t i a n m e a n t c e r t a i n l y f o r m a n y o f t h e f o r m e r o u t c a s t e s a n
improvement in social and economic status, mainly because the missionaries provided jobs
and started schools for the converts and their children already in the beginning of their work.
The accessibility of schools for the former members of Mala or Madiga caste was entirely
n e w3 7 3 a n d b r o u g h t a b o u t o n l y b y t h e C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a n y
remained uneducated, especially those who could not afford to spare the time for school.374
Importance must be given to the fact that the social structure of the joint family as such
plays a vital role in decision making, even in personal matters like faith and religion. If a male
d e c i d e s t o b e c o m e a C h r i s t i a n , i t i s m o s t l i k e l y t h a t h i s d e s c e n d a n t s w i l l a l s o e m b r a c e
Christianity. The god worshipped by the head of the household is the god worshipped by the
entire family, or in other words: the “house-god”. Thus, it appears that, in most of the villages
where Christians are found, these are members of a few families whose ancestors decided to
become Christians.375
I t i s n a t u r a l t h a t , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n i n t h e b e g i n n i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e o u t c a s t e
c o m m u n i t i e s h a d a l r e a d y e m b r a c e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e h i g h e r c a s t e s w e r e h a r d l y w i l l i n g t o
convert to Christianity3 76, because they did not want to be forced to have fellowship with the
common cus t o m s . T h i s i s e specially applicable to major events to which Hindus are also
invited.
372.Churchpropertyisgenerallyviewedasapropertyofthecommunity.
373.The sudra “was categorically denied the right of initiation and consequently the first stage
of individual life (ashrama) the studentship”, G.S. Ghurye, Caste and Race in India, p. 60.
Consequently, the outcastes or Harijans to whom the Malas and Madigas belong, did not
have the slightest chance to receive education beyond the level which was necessary to
pursue their professions, before the Christian missionaries came to India.
374. I f t h e y w e r e l a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s , t h e y w e r e o f t e n d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w o r k a n d i n c o m e
brought in by their children. Thus, even if the missionaries gave the education free of cost by
establishing boarding homes, it was at most possible for such a family to send only one of
t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o t h e s c h o o l . T h o s e c h i l d r e n w h o h a d t h e c h a n c e t o r e c e i v e a s u f fi c i e n t
education did generally not take up the sameprofessionas their caste suggests,but were
employed by the missionaries or sometimes also in the government. Some of the missions
also started to pay some kind of compensation to the Christians who were daily labourers,
inordertofacilitatethemtoparticipateinthecommonworship.
375.It happens that, when a suitable Christian match for a boy is not found among the same
jati, a match is chosen from the non-Christian caste of the same level, and often the girl has
to receive baptism in such cases, and if not, at least she is required to give up going to the
Hindu temple for worship and is requested to worship only Jesus. There are also very rare
cases when a Hindu girl marries a Christian boy against the consent of her parents. In such a
case she may remain a Hindu, but shows loyalty to her husband’s religion.
376. It appears also that, whenever one caste has embraced Christianity, it is extremely hard for
the other castes close to the one caste to join the church. Luke and Carmen report that
e.g. in one village, where a Mala and a Madiga community of approximately the same
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
Christians of a lower caste background. Again and again, reports are given that members of
higher castes would have been willing to become Christians, if only they would have been
allowed to maintain the caste distinction. However, most Protestant missionaries in Andhra
P r a d e s h c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e f u s e d a n y k i n d o f c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h e c h u r c h . Yet , i t w a s n o t
p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m t o e r a d i c a t e t h e e x i s t i n g c a s te-c o n s c i o u s n e s s , p r e v a i l i n g e v e n a m o n g t h e
MalasandMadigas,fromthechurch.
_4_.1_._2_.4__T_h_e__C_a_s_te__S_y_st_e_m__in__A_n_d_h_r_a_C__h_u_rc_h_e_s__T_o_d_a_y_
Even today, caste differences within a church cause many problems. E.g. the Andhra
E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h w i t n e s s e s s t r u g g l e s b e t w e e n M a l a s a n d M a d i g a s e v e r y t i m e
when elections for a new leadership draw near. 377 Even if there is practically only one caste
within one church, there are subgroups down to the level of the joint family which again may
cause trouble and problems between each other.
The reason for such trouble is generally the quest for power. Since Christianity does not
accept the view, that one social group is superior to another, minority groups ask for the right
of power, especially if they, viewed from the caste division, are subordinate to the majority.378
Elections for the church administration3 79in the established churches are preceded by the fight
for certain posts, which are then promised to the people whose support is most needed by the
o n e o r t h e o t h e r p a r t y . Par t i e s a r e n o r m a l l y f o r m e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a s t e o r s u b - c a s t e t o
which one belongs. Since the members of economically less developed jatis or joint families
d o n o t h a v e t h e fi n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s t o e n t e r t h e e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , t h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t
r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c h u r c h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o a l s o n o t e x p r e s s a n y i n t e r e s t i n t h e
elections.380
strength exi s t s , t h e M a l a s w o n ’ t b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s a f t e r t h e M a d i g a s h a d c o n v e r ted to
Christianity.(P.Y.Luke/J.B.Carmen, Village Christians and Hindu Culture, p. 65-66)
377. A s y s t e m p r o v i d e d b y t h e A E L C l e g i s l a t i o n , w h i c h c l a s s i fi e s p a r i s h e s w i t h a f e w M a d i g a
members as “Minority Parishes”, allows the Madiga community to have some power and
i n fl u e n c e o n t h e d e c i s i o n s t a k e n b y e l e c t i o n . C f . M . E . P r a b h a k a r , C a s t e s i n A n d h r a
Churches, p. 42
378. E . g . i n t h e S o u t h A n d h r a L u t h e r a n C h u r c h , t h e r e i s a t p r e s e n t , i . e . i n 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 , a c h u r c h
l e a d e r s h i p f r o m a s u b c a s t e o f t h e M a l a s w h i c h i s i n f e r i o r t o t h e s o c a l l e d d a s a r i g r o u p
(about the dasaris see the page 42). The present leadership, which has been in power for
about ten years, tries with all its strength to remain in power, while dasaris have taken over
t h e l e a d o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h t r i e s t o m a k e a n e n d t o t h a t l e a d e r s h i p . I t i s , i f a l l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d , n e c e s s a r y t o m e n t i o n t h a t t h e p r e s e n t l e a d e r s h i p h a s t o
s o m e e x t e n t m i s u s e d i t s p o w e r t o s u p p o r t t h e o w n f a m i l i e s , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e d e s i r e t o
c h a n g e t h e l e a d e r s h i p i s j u s t i fi e d w i t h o u t a n y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c a s t e m e m b e r s h i p . T h e
desire of the opposition is mainly to develop the church and to stop illegal practices. The
e l e ment which makes this fight worth mentioning is that the oppositi o n i s l e d b y d a s a r i s ,
whilethepresentleadershiphasitssupportfromitsownsubcasteonlywhichisinferiortothe
dasaris.
379. The problem of elections does not arise in the Roman Catholic Church, which has a clear
h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e , i n w h i c h t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y i s t h e Pop e i n R o m e . T h i s a u t h o r i t y
appointsbishopsandarchbiships,whointurnappointallpastors.
I n the evangelical churches, the leadership is general l y n o t s u c h a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n ,
because the congregations are decentralized and the administration of the property is in
theirownhand.Whenaleaderorleadershavetobechosen,itismostlydoneafteratime
ofprayer,inwhich,accordingtotheirstatements,Godshowsthemthesuitableperson.
380.Itmaybeworthmentioningthatgenerallytherighttovoteisgivenonlyifonehaspaidthe
regularchurchsupport,whichiscalculateddifferentlybythevariouschurches.Thissupport
i s o f t e n n o t p a i d b y t h e m e m b e r s o f e c o n o m i c a l l y l e s s d e v e l o p e d j a t i s o r j o i n t f a m i l i e s ,
because they do not see a g o o d r e a s o n f o r p a y i n g i t , i f they cannot participate in the
leadership anyhow. The only way for them to share the leadership is mostly to become a
pastor.
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
Where Christians of different caste background belong to the same denomination3 81, the
c a s t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n g e n e r a l l y c o n t i n u e s . A p a s t o r w h o i s o f a l o w e r c a s t e o r i g i n t h a n
members of his parish is treated by them accordingly like a person of inferior status, although
he is supposed to be their spiritual l e a d e r .3 8 2 T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h and the Andhra
EvangelicalLutheranChurchprovideseparateplacesofworshipatseveraltownsandvillages
i n A n d h r a P r a d e s h , a l l o w i n g t h e c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n a n d e v e n u n t o u c h a b i l i t y t o c o n t i n u e .3 8 3
P r i e s t s a r e p r e f e r a bly not installed in parishes w h e r e t h e r e a r e C h r i s t i a n s o f a h i g h e r c a s t e
originthanhisown.Especiallymembersofhighercasteskeeptheircastesurnamesinorderto
be easily distinguished from the “ordinary” Christians.3 84 In the church buildings, there are
different sections for the members of different castes, and the members of lower castes have
g e n e r a l l y t o s i t o n t h e fl o o r , w h i l e t h e m e m b e r o f h i g h e r c a s t e s s h a r e t h e b e n c h e s a n d
chairs.385
Some Indian Christians of all denominations in Andhra Pradesh nowadays occupy posts
in various public and private institutions, professions and skills. They are even bank managers
or occupy other responsible positions. It is hardly possible to tell their caste background from
their profession. However, as already mentioned, they know their own caste background very
well and thus often still keep alive old caste practices, especially separatistic tendencies.3 86 On
the other hand, the Christian community as such has gained respect in many ways in the face
of the Hindu community. Mainly in town areas the caste origin is no longer regarded a bar to
c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h C h r i s t i a n s a n d t o w o r k t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m . H o w e v e r , t h i s m a y b e a
phenomenon that occurs due to growing secularism in the Indian towns and cities and can be
observed also among the Hindu community. It does not take into account the situation in the
rural area. 387 It is obvious already if one takes into account the location of various hamlets of
an Indian village,that the caste system is still alive in all walks of life and gives the major
basis for a peaceful and safe, but unjust society.388
381. like in the Roman Catholic Church and a few Protestant churches
382. M.E. Prabhakar, Caste in Andhra Churches, p. 40
383. This is not necessarily the case in all parishes with members of different caste background,
but common enough to be mentioned here. See also M.E. Prabhakar, op.cit., p. 41f. There
may also be other churches where this is the case. It depends mainly on the existence of
various castes within one parish rather than on the denomination.
384. C.P. Thangaraj, Whither Indian Christianity, p. 23-26
385. Many more examples are given in M.E. Prabhakar’s article Caste in Andhra Churches, p.
43-46 and have also been witnessed during the field work. Prabhakar quotes also a longer
section of Fr. P.A. Augustine’s book Andhra Church: The Caste Fa ctor, which is a book on
the casteism in the Roman Catholic Church in Andhra Pradesh.
386. T h o s e p e r s o n s w h o h a v e g a i n e d i n fl u e n c e a n d p o w e r w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h o f t e n u s e t h e i r
powertosupporttheirownfamily(inthesenseofajointfamily)bygivingpoststotheirown
r e l a t i v e s , awarding contracts to them or by allowing them to use church prop e r t y . T h u s ,
t h e y d o m u c h t o u p l i f t t h e i r o w n s u b - c a s t e , b u t o f t e n d e n y t h e s a m e a d v a n t a g e s t o
members of other sub-castes within the church
387. This statement shall not give the impression that in towns and cities there would be no more
caste distinction. In the personal life of a family, i.e. regarding marriage, regular contacts
and communion when taking food, caste laws are still observed. However, in the public life,
caste distinction often is fading, also due to the reservation policy of the government. Thus,
m e m b e r s o f h i g h e r c a s t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y f o r c e d t o c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h m e m b e r s o f
thoseScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.Ontheotherside,thereservationpolicyhas
not much effected the private life in Indian society, and in fact, one now is eager to be
r e c o g n i z e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h i s S c h e d u l e d C a s t e s a n d S c h e d u l e d T r i b e s ( G . D i e t r i c h ,
Culture, Religion and Development, p. 37)
388. It may be mentioned here, that attempts are made by Christian theologians to raise the
i s s u e o f i n j u s t i c e b r o u g h t u p o n t h e c h u r c h e s b y t h e c a s t e s y s t e m . T h e s o c a l l e d “ d a l i t
t h e ology” may be called the Ind i a n l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g y , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s a l l a t t e m p t s
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4.2 The Social Po sition of Wo men

Even in a patriarchal society, women have an important role to play in the day-to-day
life. Their role is, like that of man, determined by various factors, among them rules laid down
in the religious scriptures. In this section, the position of women in the Hindu and Christian
s c r i p t u r e s , a n d t h e i r a c t u a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n H i n d u a n d C h r i s t i a n s o c i e t i e s i n A n d h r a
Pradesh,isdescribed.
4.2.1 The Wo man in Indian Hindu Society and in the Hindu Scriptures
T h e p o s i t i o n o f w o m e n i n t h e H i n d u s o c i e t y v a r i e s w i t h t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d s o c i a l
level. If she belongs to one of the higher castes, she may have a number of responsibilities in
thehome,whichgiveheralsosomerightswithregardtodecisionmaking.Yet,herdutyinthe
first place is to serve her husband. In the families of lower castes, the place of a woman is
i n f e r i o r , a n d t h e a s p e c t o f b e i n g t h e s e r v a n t t o h e r h u s b a n d i s w i d e n e d b y m a k i n g e v e r y
female a servant to the male members of the family. Already as a child, the female members
ofthefamilyhavetotakecareofthehouseholdandaredeprivedoftherighttoeducation.She
has no r i g h t s a n d n o responsibilities within the family setup, except to keep the household
cleanandtocookthefoodforthefamilymembers.Sometimes,shealsohastogotoworkand
earn in addition to the income of her husband. There, in spite of equal qualification, women
get generally less salary than men.389
_4_.2_._1_.1_ _ W__o _m _e_n_ _in_ _th_e_ _H_i_n_d_u_ S_c_r_ip_t_u_r_e_s
I n t h e e a r l i e s t s t a g e s o f I n d i a n h i s t o r y , w o m e n p l a i d a v i t a l r o l e i n t h e s o c i a l a n d
p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s .3 9 0 S h e w a s t h e p a r t n e r o f h e r h u s b a n d “ i n m a n a g i n g t h e a f f a i r s d u r i n g
grihasta, vanaprasta and sanyasa ashramas” and “consequently must have enjoyed a quality
of life comparable to that of the man” during the Ve dic period3 91. She partook in the religious
sacrifices which were performed together with her husband, according to the Rigveda. 392.
A n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e a n d i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f w o m a n h o o d o f t h e fi r s t
millennium B.C. is Sita, the wife of Rama, who says that the wife has to bear and to share the
fate of her husband. 393The Mahabharata contains passages in which it is said that the woman
shall be honoured and respected by man generally, without distinction. This view bases on the
made by the Dalit community for a just society on the basis of the gospel of Jesus Christ.
Obviously, the dalit theology has not yet gained much i m p a c t o n t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t he
variouschurches.
389.T h e s t a t e a n d c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t s , d u r i n g t h e p a s t y e a r s , h a v e p a s s e d o r a m e n d e d
numerous acts in order to protect women and to ensure their right of equality. These acts,
h o w e v e r , f a i l t o b e e n f o r c e d p r o p e r l y , d u e t o s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . ( s e e K . H i n g o r a n i , L e g a l
Struggle for Wo men, p. 82-85)
390. Luther W. Meinzen, India- Challenge to Love, p. 47
391. K.V.K. Thampuran, Hinduism and its Impact on Wo men, p. 18
392. P.H. Prabhu, Hindu Social Organization, p. 257f. Prabhu also quotes the story of Brihaspati,
who wants to perform penance without his wife. The gods let him know that it is improper to
perform penances without the wife (Rig. X, 109). Similar in the Satapatha Brahmana.
393. Other ideals of womanhood are Ahalya, Draupadi, Ta ra and Mandodari, who have shown
exemplary conduct as wives and taken moral responsibility for failures for which they were
actually not responsible, but which were caused to them from outside. P.H. Prabhu, Hindu
Social Organization, p. 263f
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
presumption that a woman is weak and unable to resist temptations, thus she cannot be made
responsible for h e r s i n s l i k e m a n . T h i s v i ew gives women some kind of protection against
a d u l t e r y , b e c a u s e i n t h e s e p a s s a g e s a l s o t h e m a n i s h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e i n s u c h c a s e s . T h e
Mahabharata also knows that to marry a woman to a man whom she dislikes brings sin and
disgrace 394.
However, this changed with the advent of the laws or Code of Manu, in which he said
that a woman has no freedom and should be completely devoted to fulfil the duty towards her
husband, else she would enter the womb of a jackal and be tormented by diseases. 395 With
this, he only wrote down what had slowly developed since 1000 B.C.3 96: that a woman should
remain in an inferior status to man. Manu says:
By a young girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done
independently, even in her own house.
In childhood a female must be subject to her father; in youth to her husband, when her
lord is dead to her sons. A woman never must be independent397
Her husband is deemed to be her god, whom she has to obey perfectly 398, irrespective
of his quality and conduct.399
Marriage became obligatory for women in that time, and an unmarried woman would
not be respected in society and would be deemed as a burden to her parents.
Wo m e n a r e t o g e t c h i l d r e n t o t h e i r h u s b a n d s i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e h e r i t a g e , a s A .
Mahadeva Sastri explains in his book The Ve dic Law of Marriage. He rejects the view that
m a r r i a g e w o u l d n o t b e c o m p u l s o r y f o r a w o m a n , a n d s t a t e s t h a t “ h e r f u n c t i o n ” i s t o b e a r
children from her (first and only) husband. 400Remarriage of a widow is generally despised, as
the remarried widow (punarbhu) “has no social status” 401, and her husband shall not enjoy
respect by his fellow beings.402
394. according to P.H. Prabhu, ibid., p. 268
395. Manu V, 165, quoted from Ranjana Kumari, Femaleness: The Hindu Pe rspective, p.7
396. We find already remarks about the woman’s inferiority to man in the Satapatha Brahmana
iii, 2,4,2-6.
397. Manu, V,145 quoted from Ranjana Kumari: Femaleness: The Hindu Pe rspective, p. 8
398. “To a woman, her husband constitutes her God. The husband is as pure as the Gods, and
represents all virtues.” (Brahma Va ivarta, Krishna Janma Khanda, 57.15-25; Sen,II,329) and:
“The sacred and imperative duty of a wife is to carry out the commands of her husband,
a n d t o l i v e i n p e r f e c t o b e d i e n c e t o h i s w i s h e s . ” ( G a r u d a P u r a n a , 9 5 ; D u t t , 2 7 0 ) ; b o t h
quotations taken from Ranjana Kumari, Femaleness: The Hindu Pe rspective, p. 10
399. M a n u V , 1 5 4 . T h e r e a r e o f c o u r s e a l s o o t h e r p a s s a g e s w h i c h g i v e a h i g h e r v a l u e t o t h e
w o m a n , b u t a s h o r t l o o k a t t h e p r e s e n t I n d i a n s o c i e t y s h o w s c l e a r l y t h a t t h e f e w
p r e c a u t i o n a r y s t a t e m e n t s m a d e i n t h e M a n u s m r i t i i n f a v o u r o f w o m e n a r e c o m p l e t e l y
forgotten.
400. op. cit. p. 61: “Not even the widow who has failed to fulfil her function (as laid down by
M a n u I X . 9 6 ) – b y n o t b e a r i n g children before t h e d e a t h o f h e r h u s b a n d – i s a l l o w e d t o
remarrywithaviewtogetoffspring”
401.P.H.Prabhu, Hindu Social Organization, p. 277
402. The issue of widow remarriage is mainly an issue of the higher castes. Remarriage of widows
d o e s o c c u r i n m a n y H a r i j a n c a s t e s , b u t n o t q u i t e o f t e n , b e c a u s e i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t a
womanisresponsibleforthedeathofherhusband,especiallyifhedidnotdieonaccount
of old age. If a widow is remarried, then mostly to a much older man.
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The ashrama for a woman is the household. Though, in the early writings, evidence is
there that women partook in the 4 ashramas to some extent, the dharmasastras do exclude
women from the vanaprastha ashrama and the sannyasa ashrama, and there are only a few
authorities which permit women to undergo the brahmacharya ashrama, and if she shall learn
something, then only at home as a student of her husband.
Another impact from that time of the dharmasastras is that a girl should be married in
an age which is not suitable both, in physical and psychical terms.4 03 The girl will have no
chance to ever develop her own personality, since she will be guided and formed only by her
husband, after she had been well trained by her mother in the household work. This results in
the often made observation that the Indian woman appears to be an obedient servant to her
husband, even to that extent that she does not eat together with her husband because she has to
serve him the meal.4 04 Though Manu states that a girl should not be married to a man whom
s h e d i s l i k e s , t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h s a y t h a t a w o m a n m u s t n o t t a k e a n y
decision on her own.405
During menstruation period and after confinement, the woman is regarded impure until
t h e p e r i o d i s o v e r a n d s h e h a s t a k e n a p u r i f y i n g b a t h . T h i s i m p u r i t y i s a c t u a l l y a n
u n t o u c h a b i l i t y . T h e m a n w h o t o u c h e s a w o m a n d u r i n g h e r m e n s t r u a t i o n b e c o m e s h i m s e l f
untouchable.406
_4_.2_._1_.2_ _ W__o _m _e_n_ _in_ _In_d_i_a_n_ H__in_d_u_ _S_o_c_ie_t_y_ i_n_ A__n_d_h_r_a _P_r_a_d_es__h
The demand for dowry at the time of marriage 407 is an important factor to the position
of women in the present Indian society. The parents of the girl have to offer gifts to the family
o f t h e b r i d e g r o o m a s w e l l a s t o p a y a h i g h a m o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f a m i l y o f t h e
bridegroom is in future taking care of the girl. Dowry is sometimes called the worst evil of
Indian society, because it often leads women to either suicide or at least permanent pressure
from the side of the in-laws. Repeated reports are there about so called “dowry-deaths” 408.

403. A. Mahadevi Sastri, op.cit., p. 62f: The most suitable age, according to Manu-smriti IX,88.89
a n d 9 3 i s t h e a g e b e t w e e n 8 a n d 1 2 o r e v e n e a r l i e r . C f . P . H . P r a b h u , H i n d u S o c i a l
Organization, p. 269f
404. However, it must be admitted that these rules are laid down for the members of the high
castes. The customs among lower castes are not entirely determined by the Code of Manu,
although they may be followed among them, as an attempt to gain respect from the side
of the higher castes.
405. v, 147-148 and others; cf. P.H. Prabhu, Hindu Social Organization, footnote 70 on page 270
406. P.H. Prabhu, ibid., p. 271f; he also mentions that there are some statements which opposed
the untouchability of women during the menstrual period, especially from Ya jnavalkya. This
impurity is not a feature unique to Hinduism. It is found among many religions. However, the
impurity imposed on women in Hinduism extends further than in other religions, where it is
only related to religious rituals.
407. see also page 123
408. Many cases are reported in which a housewife has been burnt. The official version usually is
that the sari of the woman caught fire in the kerosene stove. However, as has been found
o u t a f t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , m a n y s u c h d e a t h s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e i n - l a w s o f t h e w o m a n ,
because they wanted to have a higher dowry than was given to them by the woman’s
parents at the time of marriage. Some figures are found in the study report from the Centre
for Pe ace and Justice, Kanyakumari: Rights of Wo men and the Menace of Dowry, p. 6. See
also G. V. Lobo, Wo men’s Rights and Reproductive Te chnologies, p. 24, and J. Mary/K.J.
Prasad, An Assessment from Hyderabad. According to THE HINDU (21.9.92, p. 3), 136 dowry
deaths have been registered in Andhra Prades h d u r i n g t h e fi r s t h a l f o f 1 9 9 2 ( J anuary to
June),andinadditiontothat,36dowrymurderswerereportedduringthesameperiod.
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
Due to the high costs incurring to the parents of a girl child, female infanticide takes
also place, or abortion is performed in case of a female embryo.409
In the present Indian society, women obviously play an inferior role compared to men.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a f e w w o m e n s u c c e s s f u l l y e n g a g e d i n p o l i t i c s a n d a n o t h e r f e w i n t h e
industrial sector at leading posts, the majority still remains at home, determined to be a wife
a n d m o t h e r w i t h o u t a n y o r w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o d e v e l o p h e r o w n t a l e n t s a n d
abilities except within the frame of the household of her husband, or she has to do hard work
for which she receives less salary than a man for the same work. 410 Girls and women of an
inferior caste are employed by economically sound families as servant maids, often receiving
only food and a small amount, insufficient to maintain even a single person, as salary.411
Education of women has become more common, but still there is a wide gap between
t h e e d u c a t i o n o f w o m e n a n d t h a t o f m e n .4 1 2 E s p e c i a l l y i n u r b a n a r e a s a n d f r o m r i c h e r
f a m i l i e s4 1 3, w o m e n a r e s e e n o c c u p y i n g p o s t s i n v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s , o f t e n i n t h e n e w l y
d e v e l o p e d e l e c t r o n i c b u s i n e s s . I n r u r a l a r e a s , w h e r e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n
lives,thesituationofwomenhasscarcelyimproved.Girls,ifatall,are senttoschoolforonly
a short time (normally less than 4 years4 14), and then they have to join work in the fields or in
the household. Generally, they have to serve the brother beside the work in the household.
Boys receive a better education especially in rural areas.415
In spite of the manifold discrimination women experience within the Indian society, it
is observed that women are the custodians of religious believes and practices, which is mainly
the case in the high caste families.4 16 Wo men are the ones who know how to perform certain
r i t u a l s w h i c h a r e c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , a n d t h e y w i l l p r e p a r e e v e r y t h i n g i n p r o p e r
manner for a celebration of a special rite performed by a priest. However, it is also true and
s t i l l u p h e l d t h a t w o m e n w h o a r e m e n s t r u a t i n g a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i m p u r e , m a k i n g t h e m
unabletoperformortoparticipateinanyreligiousrite.
409. cf. G.V. Lobo, Wo men’s Rights and Reproductive Te chnologies. India has an average sex-
ratio below 930 women per one thousand men (1991 census), while the world sex-ratio is
above 1000. This difference “cannot be blamed on economic realities in the country. We
cannot argue that women’s health is better in the affluent areas and not so where poverty
is rampant. In Kerala, for instance, the sex ratio is favourable to women (1032), while in the
Punjab, one of India’s most affluent states, it is below the national average (879).” Health for
the Millions, Vo l XVIII, No. 1&2, p. 37
410. s. Stella Fa ria in the introduction to The Emerging Christian Wo man, p. v to xvii
411. Most of the people interviewed, both Christian and Hindus, answered to the question why
they employ girl children as servant maids, that the girl would be obedient, did not want to
go to school, and that they intend to help her by giving her a regular work, for which she is
given food, shelter and clothing.
412. cf. the table about the literacy-rate in India on page 91. The total literacy rate of women in
India is approximately half as high as that of men.
413. Such families have usually female servants, often still girls, to do the household work
414. Primary education is received by about 51% of girls, and the middle level of education is
reached only by 29 %, compared to 76% boys enrolled in primary schools and 53.4 % in the
middle schools. See J. Desrochers, Education for Social Change, p. 96
415. In this context, it is also necessary to note that there is a wide variation in the quality of the
schools. While the public schools, which are more or less free, are often, especially in the
rural area, of a very poor quality, the private schools which demand relatively high fees,
have a better quality. Since Pa rents are preferably willing to spend more on the education
of boys, boys are often sent to the better private schools, while the girls have to go to the
public schools.
416. The position of women is also much better in the northern parts of India than in the south.
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
4.2.2 The Wo man in Christianity
According to the teachings of Jesus, women have the same status as men. Although he
gathered 12 disciples, who were males, around him, there are different narrations in the New
Te stament which show that also women are among the close followers of Christ, and they had
k e y p o s i t i o n s i n t h e l i f e o f C h r i s t .4 1 7 A l s o , C h r i s t d e f e n d e d a w o m a n w h o w a s c a u g h t i n
adultery by saying to those men who wanted to put her to death, that the one who has no sin
shall throw the first stone to kill her.4 18 However, it may be the gender bias of the authors of
the gospels of the New Te stament, or their desire to express certain views and doctrines in a
symbolic manner4 19, that there is not much room for a group of female disciples around Jesus
in their narrations.420
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e t t e r s o f Pau l , w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t h e b a s i c t h e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t h e f r a m e o f t h e N e w Tes t a m e n t , t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m a n a n d w o m a n i s
ambivalent.Ontheonesidehestatesthat“thereisneithermalenorfemale;foryouareallone
in Christ”4 21, and on the other side he says that the wife should obey her husband or that the
husband is the head of the wife. 422 He goes even further by ordering the women to “learn in
silence with all submissiveness”.423
P a u l e n c o u r a g e s a y o u n g w i d o w t o r e m a r r y , t o g e t c h i l d r e n a n d t o k e e p t h e
household.4 24 Older widows above 60 years shall be taken special care of by the Christian
community.
It is obvious that Pa ul’s teaching is not in the line of Jesus’ teaching, who did not at any
place demand the subordination of the wife to her husband. Pa ul certainly has been influenced
b y t h e p r e v a i l i n g s o c i a l p a t t e r n s o f h i s t i m e , w h i c h c a n b e s e e n i n m a n y p a r a l l e l s t o t h e
demands and statements by the Jewish authorities and the Old Te stament scriptures.425
417. Cf. P. Drego, The Feminist Viewpoint, p. 42-43. The most important role is that it were the
women who were close to Jesus, who discovered that he was risen from death, and thus
women became the first propagators of this news which is fundamental to Christian faith.
(Mk 16,1-8)
418. Gospel according to St. John, 8,1-11
419. Fo r instance, the number 12 which is the number of the disciples around Jesus, symbolizes
the fullness of the people of Israel, which consists of 12 tribes. The head of a tribe is, in the
Jewish patriarchal society, naturally a male person.
420. In fact, it seems to be taken for granted that women were also with Jesus, in the same way
like the 12 disciples were. See for instance Lk 8,2-3
421. Gal 3,28
422. Col 3,18; 1 Cor 11,3
423. 1 Tim 2,11
424. 1 Tim 5,14
425. It is beyond the scope of this thesis to investigate the full extent of the influence of Jewish
c u s t o m s a n d b e l i e f s o n Pau l ’ s t h e o l o g y . S e e i n t h i s r e g a r d e . g . D o r i s F r a n k l i n , I m p a c t o f
Christianity on the Status of Wo man…, especially pages 45-46, and P. Drego, The Feminist
Viewpoint, p. 43-45
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Chapter IV: SOCIAL INFLUENCES
4.2.3 The Wo man in Indian Christianity in Andhra Pradesh
The attitude towards women in India seems not to have changed much with the advent
of the Christian missionaries from the We st. This is not surprising if one considers that in the
19th century the position of women in the western Christianity followed more or less the same
rules which had been laid down by Pa ul.4 26 The Indian Christian woman is responsible for the
household, she has to serve her husband and to be loyal to him.
U n t i l n o w , C h r i s t i a n w o m e n a r e o n l y s e l d o m a d m i t t e d f o r t h e o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g , a n d
o r d i n a t i o n o f w o m e n f o r r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h w a s q u i t e r a r e , i f n o t
impossible.4 27 Men are not willing to work under the leadership of women, who are assigned
posts in the church administration only at a lower level.4 28 The Lutheran churches refused to
o r d a i n w o m e n f o r c h u r c h m i n i s t r y u n t i l 1 9 9 1 , w h e n t h e fi r s t w o m a n w a s o r d a i n e d b y t h e
United Evangelical Lutheran Church of India4 29, while there are only a few ordained women
in the Church of South India and the Methodist Church in India. This is in spite of the fact that
many We stern churches for long have supported women’s ordination 430. There is, however,
t h e m o v e m e n t o f b i b l e w o m e n o r a s o c a l l e d “ w o m e n s a m a j ” ( w o m e n g r o u p ) , w h i c h i s
actively involved in the propagation of the gospel. They meet once a week in different houses,
where they hold a bible study and prayer. Often, they do also social service, like visiting sick
people and prisoners. From the administration’s point of view, they are independent.431
The practice of child marriage in Andhra Christianity is deteriorating. Luke and Carmen
report that in most marriages in the villages, the girls are below the age of 15 years at the time
of marriage, but the findings are certainly no longer valid to that extent.4 32 Now, especially in
urban areas, a tendency towards late marriage, in concurrence with the level of education, is
witnessed.433
The practice of negotiating dowry at the time of match finding is common among the
C h r i s t i a n s , e v e n t h o u g h o f fi c i a l l y , o n t h e l e v e l o f t h e c h u r c h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , d o w r y i s
condemned. However, “dowry in cash and/or kind has become a status symbol among middle
c l a s s f a m i l i e s , a n d i t i s d i s c r e e t l y , b u t w i d e l y p r a c t i s e d i n t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y . ”4 3 4
426. I t i s o n l y d u r i n g t h e r e c e n t d e c a d e s , t h a t a s o c a l l e d f e m i n i s t t h e o l o g y h a s d e v e l o p e d ,
w h i c h a t t e m p t s t o r e m o v e o r a t l e a s t t o r e - i n t e r p r e t t h e p a t r i a r c h a l e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e
biblical statements which refer to women.
427. Only a few women are ordained in the Methodist Church, the CSI and the Church of North
India.
428. see e.g. B.V. Subbamma, Wo men in Mission:…, p. 97
429. The United Evangelical Lutheran Church of India is actually not a church in so far, as it does
not have congregations o n i t s o w n . I t i s a union of Lutheran churches, which keep their
independence with regard to administrativeand doctrinal matters.Decisionstaken by the
executivecounciloftheUnitedEvangelicalLutheranChurchofIndia,inwhichallmember
churches are represented, can, however, be binding to all member churches, if declared
so.
430.In 1980, Dr. Marjorie Mathews became the first female bishop of the Methodist Church in
America
431.T h e s e g r o u p s w e r e b e g u n m o s t l y b y t h e f o r e i g n m i s s i o n a r i e s a s a n e f f o r t t o r e a c h t h e
zenanas.
432. op.cit., p. 192
433. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o c h u r c h c a m e f o r w a r d w i t h d e t a i l e d fi g u r e s o n t h i s q u e s t i o n . T h e
i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g t h e fi e l d w o r k i s , h o w e v e r , a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , w i t h
increasing education, the age at the time of marriage goes up as well.
434. M.E. Prabhakar, Caste-Class and Status in Andhra Churches…, p. 21
110