3D printed, self-glazed ceramics: An investigation inspired by Egyptian faience. PhD, University of

19 Pages·2017·1.05 MB·English

Chapter 1: Introduction to the research
3D printing is a popular name given to a range of additive manufacturing techniques that
produce objects layer-by-layer using information from a digital model. Originally, 3D
printing was mainly used as a prototyping technique, as it was, and continues to be an
extremely effective way of testing and evaluating products before committing to more
expensive mass production techniques (such as injection moulding). Whilst prototyping is
still a major application for 3D printing, more end use applications are being seen due to
developments in materials and machine capabilities. Machines capable of producing metal
parts continue to lead the way in this development. 3D printing is also being used to
produce ceramic moulds for investment casting, as well as some small online bureau
services making bespoke glazed ceramic artefacts. As a material, ceramics are very versatile
and have many excellent properties, making them suitable for a wide range of applications.
These properties include their durability, thermal insulating properties, ability to be glazed
and made impervious to liquids, as well as many aesthetic qualities. However, by 3D
printing, it remains extremely challenging to replicate the physical properties common to
conventionally-formed ceramics, and a number of processing steps and multiple firing
stages are often required to obtain satisfactory results.
This research investigates the potential for developing self-glazing ceramic materials for
powder binder 3D printing technologies, taking inspiration from an ancient Egyptian
ceramic ware called faience.
Faience is an Egyptian ceramic ware that was produced in Egypt from around the 4th
millennium BC. Archaeologists generally agree that three methods of glazing were used to
produce faience, each requiring a different composition and set of conditions for drying
and firing. These three glazing methods are known as efflorescence, application and
cementation glazing. The three glazing methods will be described in detail in chapter 2.
Faience was traditionally worked as a paste, using carving and shaping tools, and
sometimes simple moulds to create objects. However, it is well documented that Egyptian
faience is difficult to work with in paste form. The primary reason for this is due to a lack of
plasticity, resulting from a virtually clay-free body. This has traditionally limited the range of
shapes that can be formed in faience. Significantly, previous research at UWE has shown
that the powder binder 3D printing process favours the use of low plastic compositions.
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As its name suggests, powder binder 3D printing utilises a powdered build material. Unlike
traditional faience paste forming techniques, the powder binder fabrication process does
not require a sufficiently plastic material to enable forming. In fact, it has been found that
the incorporation of plastic components in this process can be detrimental, causing the
layers to shift during the build, ultimately resulting in object deformation. This makes
faience potentially an ideal material to explore in combination with this 3D printing process
and poses an interesting alliance between the inherent material properties of faience and
the properties required for powder binder printing.
3D printing provides the potential to create forms with complex geometries that would be
difficult or even impossible to produce using conventional forming techniques. The
coupling of this 3D printing process with a material that has been traditionally difficult to
work with provides the potential to create unprecedented forms in faience.
Focus of the research
The work presented in this thesis is situated within the field of 3D printed ceramic material
and process development for creative applications within art and design.
Until relatively recently there had been very few advancements made within the field of
ceramic 3D printing. However, in 2016 a surge of major innovations and technological
developments were seen that have the potential to unlock the capabilities of ceramic 3D
printing.
In early 2016, HLR laboratories (California) unveiled their new SLA (stereolithography)
based process that uses a ceramic loaded resin which solidifies when exposed to light from
a laser and is capable of producing fully dense, high strength ceramic parts that can
withstand temperatures in excess of 1700°C. [Eckle et al. 2016]. Israeli company XJet
revealed their pioneering Nano Particle Jetting technology in May 2016, which involves the
deposition of ceramic Nano particles in a liquid suspension using inkjet technology [Xjet,
2016]. Admatec exhibited its first ceramic 3D printer in September 2016 that uses digital
light processing (DLP) technology and a UV curable ceramic loaded resin [TCT magazine,
2016]. Also in 2016, HP launched its long awaited Multijet Fusion Technology, a process
which involves the deposition of fusing and detailing agents onto a bed of ceramic powder
at a rate of 30 million drops per second [Griffiths, 2016].
These examples of recently developed technologies are primarily targeted towards
technical applications, for example aerospace, microelectronics or medical/dental
applications, which have demanding requirements such as high temperature resistance,
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resolution, density and strength. It should be noted that the new 3D printing technologies
cited above were announced after the practical phase of the research described within this
thesis was completed and as such they were not available for practical experimentation
within this project. They do, however indicate a strong and growing interest in the field of
3D printing of ceramics, to which this thesis makes a contribution.
The 3D printable materials and processes developed within this research are intended for
applications within the field of the visual arts and design. In ancient Egyptian times, faience
was prized for its unique visual appearance and was used primarily for the production of
decorative objects e.g. votive ornaments, amulets and jewellery. The faience glaze is not a
functional glaze (in the modern sense) and is therefore best suited for use in a visual arts
context rather than for any specific functional application which may have more stringent
technical requirements.
Examples of art and design practitioners who also explore ceramic or glass 3D printing
technologies within their practice include Markus Kayser, who in 2011 presented his Solar
Sinter Project at the Royal College of Art. Keyser built a 3D printer that uses solar energy to
melt desert sand to create crude glass sculptures and explore the concept of using
renewable energy and natural materials in combination with 3D printing technologies
[Etherington, R. 2011]. Researchers at MIT have recently developed an extrusion based 3D
printing process for the production of optically transparent glass, signifying a major step
forward in the field of 3D printing in glass [Klein et al. 2015]. The team showcased their
findings through the production of a series of coiled glass structures which they projected
light through to create complex light patterns, utilising the optical nature of the glass.
Oliver Van Herpt is a Dutch artist/designer who spent two years developing a five-foot-tall
ceramic extrusion based 3D printer that would be capable of producing large to medium
scale ceramic objects. Van Herpt experimented with texture, surfaces, shape and scale,
eventually demonstrating that that his 3D printing process was capable of producing
ceramic objects up to 80cm tall and 40 cm wide [Treggiden, K. 2014].
Although the specific materials and methods used in the above examples are different to
this investigation (i.e. they are not investigating self-glazing ceramics), their creative
practices serve as evidence of a strong and growing interest in this area, which supports
the present thesis.

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Context of this research
The PhD project that is described within this thesis was undertaken alongside a larger
AHRC-funded research project. Funding for this research was awarded to Professor
Stephen Hoskins and David Huson, to investigate the 3D printing of self-glazing ceramics
inspired by ancient Egyptian paste techniques (Faience). This research builds upon Hoskins’
and Huson’s previous AHRC-funded research into the 3D printing of ceramics.
Work on the larger project focussed primarily on the development of 3D printable
materials and methods for two of the Egyptian Faience techniques: efflorescence glazing
and application glazing. Materials and processes were developed and refined for both
glazing types. Within the larger project, the PhD student made a significant practical
contribution to the investigation of the efflorescence and application glazing techniques,
working under close guidance of her supervisors. This period served as a formative phase in
the development of the PhD student’s knowledge and experience of 3D printing and of
faience materials and techniques, and provided the opportunity to develop the confidence
needed to undertake the independent research which constitutes the PhD project that is
described within the body of this thesis. Additionally, a summary of the practical
contribution that the PhD student made to the larger AHRC funded project can be seen in
appendix 4 of this thesis.
Two of the objectives outlined by the larger AHRC project proposal indicate the
involvement and focus for the PhD student to pursue. These objectives are outlined below;
1. [The PhD student will] investigate the potential for deposition print techniques for
low-cost printed Egyptian Faience.
2. [The] cross-disciplinary PhD studentship [will] develop a 4th body type – a self-
coloured glass like material, where the colour is integral to the body of the material.
As is the often the case with large-scale, exploratory research projects, the objectives and
work plan evolved from those identified at the start of the project. As the experimental
work progressed, new challenges and opportunities were revealed which were not
anticipated at the proposal stage of the research. It was therefore necessary to adapt and
develop the project plan accordingly.
Nevertheless, both of the objectives outlined above were investigated within this PhD.
An investigation into low-cost 3D paste extrusion techniques led to the development of a
fabrication process for the 3D printing of self-glazing ceramic materials inspired by ancient
Egyptian faience (as outlined in objective 1). However, this approach was found to be very
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limited in terms of the range of three-dimensional shapes that could be formed and the
composition of the paste material, therefore the overall scope and potential of this
approach was reached relatively quickly. This work is described in chapter 4.
Following this, and in response to objective two outlined above, a 3D printable glassy-
ceramic composition was also developed within this PhD. This was explored through an
investigation into the third glazing technique used to produce Egyptian faience - the
cementation glazing technique - in combination with powder binder 3D printing
techniques. This work constitutes the primary contribution of this PhD research. This
involved the investigation, development and testing of ceramic body and glaze powder
materials which enable cementation glaze formation and were compatible with the
powder-binder 3D printing process. This investigation of cementation glazed, 3D printed
ceramics is described in detail in chapter 5 of this thesis, and makes a contribution to
knowledge that is distinct and independent from the larger AHRC funded project.
The research question, aims and objectives for the PhD project are defined below:

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Research Question
Can 3D printing techniques be used to overcome the forming issues associated with
traditional cementation-glazed faience techniques?
Research Aim
To investigate 3D printing as a method of forming faience to be glazed using the
cementation technique and to test its suitability for practical applications within art and
design.
Research objectives
• Provide a historical and contextual review of Egyptian faience and to conduct a
visual appraisal of traditional and contemporary faience artefacts to establish the
benchmark standards of the various materials under development throughout the
research.
• Present a contextual review of ceramic 3D printing to provide a general overview
and to contextualise the research within the field of 3D printing materials/process
development for creative applications in art and design.
• Through practical enquiry, investigate powder-binder 3D printing as means to form
self-glazing ceramic bodies using the cementation glaze technique inspired by
Egyptian faience.
• Develop a highly-vitrified or glassy body for 3d printable, single-fire ceramics.
• Use practical examples to test and evaluate the research findings.

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My Background
As an undergraduate, I studied Interdisciplinary Textile Design at the University of the West
of England (UWE). This was a materials and process led design course that emphasised the
importance of developing a broad range of practical skills and materials knowledge in order
to inform the design process. After completing my undergraduate degree, I spent three
years working with a multidisciplinary team of doctor’s, engineers and scientists to develop
a medical diagnostic device that used gas sensor technology to analyse volatiles present in
human waste. This work was undertaken at the Centre for Research in Analytical Materials
and Sensor Science (CRAMSS) at UWE. It was my role to design the gas sensor for this
device and develop a fabrication process for its production, which I undertook as an MPhil
research project. During this project I developed a comprehensive knowledge of both
digital and non-digital fabrication techniques, with particular emphasis on high resolution
printing processes such as direct-write and inkjet printing.
After completing my MPhil, I began working as a Research Assistant on a 3D printed
ceramics project funded by the AHRC at the Centre for Fine Print Research (CFPR) UWE.
During this time, I developed skills in 3D modelling, 3D design, object fabrication, material
development (for ceramic 3D printing) and machine operation and repairs. This role also
provided me with an appreciation for the advantages of 3D printing in terms of the
freedom to create ceramic forms that would be difficult to produce using traditional
techniques such as casting, hand modelling or throwing.
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Research methodology
Introduction
This section outlines the methodology used to conduct the research. An iterative approach
has been taken, through phases of making and testing, which has formed a cyclic
progression of work. This research methodology is encapsulated by the idea of action
research, which is defined in this section. A four phase research methodology was used to
conduct the research presented in this thesis. For clarity this section provides a flow
diagram of the research phases (figure 2) followed by an explanation of what each phase
entailed. The late Bruce Archer, Professor of Design Research at the Royal College of Art,
described three categories of research in art and design [1995]. These three categories are
research about art and design, research for the purpose of art and design, and research
through art and design. The research described within this thesis contributes to all three
categories and this is discussed at the end of this section.

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A definition of action research
The late Bruce Archer, a prominent figure in establishing research procedures in the field of
art and design, defined action research as ‘a systematic enquiry conducted through the
medium of practical action, calculated to generate or test new, or newly imported
information, ideas, forms or procedures and to generate communicable knowledge [1995].
In his definition, Archer points out that the enquiry must be systematic and for the
purposes of this research this has been ensured by establishing appropriate research
question/aims/objectives and undertaking focussed activities to address these through the
use of empirically-based procedures and testing.
Empirical research is a method of gaining knowledge through action and experience the
resulting data providing a basis for questioning, reasoning and reflection. It was born out of
the Empiricism, a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principal that
knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered specifically by the senses. In
research terms, ‘Empirical’ refers to the collection and evaluation of data using evidence
observable by the senses and/or scientific instruments.
Action research tends to be cyclic, using a spiral of actions that are designed to plan, act,
observe and reflect upon newly gathered information which is then used to formulate a
revised plan of action. The action cycle outline by Kemmis and Mc Taggart [1982] is as
follows;
• To develop a plan of action to improve1 what is already happening
• To act to implement the plan
• To observe the effects of action within the context of what occurs
• To reflect on these effects as a basis for further planning, subsequent action and
on, through a succession of cycles.
Figure 1 show diagram of the action research cycle.

1 In this case, improve means to develop new materials and processes with the aim of
extending creative practice in 3D printed ceramics
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Figure 1: The action research cycle [by K. Nash]
Plan/revise
Reflect
plan
The action research cycle
Action
Observe

The information gathered through each research activity is fed back into the cycle, which in
turn leads to the formulation of new testable plans, actions and observable outcomes.
With each cycle the researchers’ knowledge of the original problem increases and they
become better equipped at finding a solution.
Another characteristic of action research is that it tends to be participative, involving the
research participant(s) to actively influence the situation in order to explore something
within its wider context. This is quite different to other branches of research, such as those
undertaken in the field of fundamental science, where the investigator tries not to
interfere, influence or impart any of their own values on the situation. As a consequence of
this, Archer points out that it is essential for the action researcher to make clear what
interventions took place and what theoretical, ideological and ethical position the
investigator took up in making the interventions, observations and judgement’s. This
research has involved participation from the investigator and so for clarification, the nature
and extent of this action will be described in the following section where the four phase
research methodology is outlined.

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