2018 Daniel Calderbank School of Arts, Languages and Cultures

631 Pages·2017·61.23 MB·English

MOULDING CLAY TO MODEL SEALAND SOCIETY

POTTERY PRODUCTION AND FUNCTION AT TELL KHAIBER,
SOUTHERN IRAQ

A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities

2018

Daniel Calderbank

School of Arts, Languages and Cultures
List of Contents
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List of Figures 6
List of Tables 14
List of Abbreviations 16
Abstract 17
Declaration 18
Copyright Statement 18
Acknowledgements 19
The Author 21
Introduction 22
I.1 Issues for Clarification 26
I.1.1 Geography and Chronological Terminology 27
I.1.2 2nd Millennium Chronology 28
I.1.3 Main Text and Appendices 29
I.1.4 Stance on the Publication of Unprovenanced Material 30

CHAPTER 1. The Babylonian “Dark Age”: Historical and Archaeological
Research Context 32
1.1 The Site of Tell Khaiber 32
1.1.1 Site Outline 32
1.1.2 Khaiber and the Sealand 34
1.2 The Grand Historical Context 35
1.2.1 The First Babylonian Dynasty 35
1.2.2 The Kassite Dynasty 39
1.2.3 The Sealand Dynasty 41
1.2.4 Hypothetical Chronological Framework 46
1.2.5 Historical Context: Issues to Address 47
1.3 The Archaeological Context 49
1.3.1 Southern and Central Plains 50
1.3.2 Northern Plains 54
1.3.3 Archaeological Context: Issues to Address 56
1.4 The Pottery Context 57
1.4.1 The Development of 2nd Millennium Ceramic Studies 57
1.4.2 Pottery Context: Issues to Address 61

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CHAPTER 2. Tell Khaiber: Textual Evidence, Archaeological Context, and

Site Phasing 63
2.1 Architectural Overview 63
2.2 Textual Overview 65
2.3 Hypothetical Phasing and Area Analysis 69
2.3.1 Phase 1 70
2.3.2 Phase 2 73
2.3.3 Phases 3a and 3b 81
2.3.4 Phase 4 87
2.3.5 Mixed Phasing 89
2.4 Conclusions 91

CHAPTER 3. Field Practice and Pottery Recording: Procedures and Methods 92
3.1 Excavation, Collection, and Recording of the Sample 92
3.1.1 Excavation and Recording Procedures 92
3.1.2 Pottery Recording Procedures 94
3.1.3 Selection of Pottery Sample 95
3.2 The Typology 96
3.2.1 Structuring the Typology 96
3.2.2 The Typology 98
3.2.3 Brief Note on Typological Variability 98
3.3. Vessel Attributes and Parameters for Analysis 99
3.3.1 Inclusions 99
3.3.2 Texture 102
3.3.3 Shape / Morphology 102
3.3.4 Forming Technique 103
3.3.5 Surface Treatments and Decoration 106
3.3.6 Firing Conditions 107
3.3.7 Use-Related Features 109
3.4 Computer Programs 110
3.4.1 Microsoft Office 110
3.4.2 Adobe Creative Cloud 110
3.4.3 ArcGIS 111
3.4.4 Pot Utility v.1.05 111
3.4.5 Supereyes (B008) 111

CHAPTER 4. The Tell Khaiber Assemblage: Chronological and Cultural
Discussion 112
4.1 Relevant Mid 2nd Millennium Pottery Sequences 112
4.1.1 The Mesopotamian Heartland 112
4.1.2 Beyond the Mesopotamian Heartland 113
4.2 Contextualising the Assemblage 116
4.2.1 Internal Shape Development: Phases 1-4 116
4.2.2 The Mesopotamian Heartland: Continuity or Change? 121
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4.2.3 Regional Context: Beyond the Mesopotamian Heartland 127
4.3 Discussion 132

CHAPTER 5. Sealand Period Production: A Chaîne Opératoire Approach 136
5.1 The Chaîne Opératoire 137
5.1.1 Clay Collection and Preparation 137
5.1.2 Forming Techniques and Secondary Treatments 143
5.1.3 Drying and Firing 159
5.2 Conclusions 164

CHAPTER 6. Sealand Period Production: Who Set the Standard? 166
6.1 Previous Approaches to Production 166
6.1.1 Conceptualising Specialisation 167
6.1.2 Specialisation and Standardisation 172
6.1.3 Standardisation as a Result of Mass-Production 178
6.2 Assessing Standardisation and Potting Skill at Tell Khaiber 180
6.2.1 Case Study: Khaiber Cups and Bowls 181
6.2.2 Summary 189
6.3 Assessing the Socioeconomic Position of Potters 190
6.3.1 Ceramic Imagery and Metaphorical Association 190
6.3.2 The Nature of Specialisation 191
6.3.3 The Khaiber Archive 197
6.3.4 Summary 199
6.4 Conclusions 200

CHAPTER 7. Establishing Use-Contexts: Texts, Pots, and Food Habits 203
7.1 Understanding Folk Typologies 204
7.1.1 Sources of Evidence 204
7.1.2 Previous Attempts at Reconciliation 208
7.1.3 Data Set and Methodology 210
7.2 Primary Use-Contexts 211
7.2.1 Cooking 215
7.2.2 Beer Brewing 218
7.2.3 Measuring and Processing 224
7.2.4 Storage and Transport 231
7.2.5 Serving, Eating, and Drinking 238
7.2.6 Ritual Activity 246
7.2.7 Other/Obscure Uses 250
7.3 Conclusion 251

CHAPTER 8. Patterns of Activity at Tell Khaiber: Assessing the Spatial
Distribution of Pottery 253
8.1 Notes on Method 253
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8.2 Khaiber Use-Context: Identifying Patterns and Contextual
Associations 254
8.2.1 Cooking 257
8.2.2 Beer Brewing 258
8.2.3 Measuring 260
8.2.4 Processing 261
8.2.5 Storage and Transport 263
8.2.6 Serving and Consumption 267
8.3 Patterns of Activity 273
8.3.1 Public Building 274
8.3.2 Towers 280
8.3.3 Private Houses 281
8.4 Conclusions 282

CHAPTER 9. Conclusions and Discussion 284

Bibliography 291

Appendix A: Illustrated Typology 318
Appendix B: Typological Descriptions 459
Appendix C: Fabric Types 483
Appendix D: Fabric Analysis 492
Appendix E: X-Ray Analysis 501
Appendix F: Pottery Type Distributions 533
Appendix G: Illustrated Vessel Distributions 581
Appendix H: Sealand Period Vessel Names (A-Z) 618
Appendix I: Old-Middle Babylonian Vessel Names (A-Z) 627

Word Count: 79,845

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List of Figures
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I.1 Map of Mesopotamia and surrounding regions, showing the location of the
main sites mentioned in the text (Tell Khaiber: red; Southern/Central Plains:
green; Northern Plains: orange; Peripheral Sites: yellow). Basemap: ©2017
TerraMetrics, Google Maps. 31

1.1 Left: Satellite image of Tell Khaiber (5/2/2010, DigitalGlobe Foundation).
Right: contour map. 33
1.2 River courses and canals potentially associated with Tell Khaiber and Tell
Khaiber 2. Satellite image 24/12/2010, DigitalGlobe Foundation (Campbell et
al. 2017: 3, fig.2). 34
1.3 Tablet 3064:67, listing grain receipts dating to the accession year of
Ayadaragalama. Dimensions: 9.8 x 3.4cm. 35
1.4 Frog weight inscribed with the name of Ulam-Burariaš (van Koppen 2010:
455, fig.1). 45
1.5 Comparative stratigraphy of excavated levels at sites in the southern and
central alluvial plains (after Armstrong and Gasche 2014: tbl.9). 51
1.6 Distribution of settlement sizes for the Sealand Dynasty (Al-Hamdani 2015:
150, fig.10). 53
1.7 Figure 1.7: The landscape, settlements, canals, and marshes during the
Sealand Dynasty (Al-Hamdani 2015: 142, Map 12). 53
1.8 Comparative stratigraphy of excavated levels at sites in the northern alluvial
plains (after Armstrong and Gasche 2014: tbl.9). 55

2.1 Plan of the Tell Khaiber public building, demonstrating the external walls of
the southern section (pale brown), and those of the northern section (dark
brown). Area numbers relevant to the discussion presented in this Chapter are
included, and the areas subjected to more comprehensive excavation are
shaded in grey. 64
2.2 Plan of private houses 1-3, located to the southeast of the public building. 65
2.3 A typical tabular accounting tablet (TK1 3064:51), containing three columns
which indicate the amount expected, left, the amount actually received, centre,
and the personal name, right. Height: 10cm. 67
2.4 Left: Phase 1 architecture (brown/blue), and associated areas of excavation
(grey). Right: Hypothetical Phasing, showing position of Phase 1. 70
2.5 Reconstructed section through vault profile. Vault ceiling is based on the
shape and orientation of the preserved vault bricks. Illustration: Mary
Shepperson. 71
2.6 Southeast facing elevation of the arches through Wall 1122, including the
profiles of Vaults 1 and 2. Illustration: Mary Shepperson. 71
2.7 Aerial view of vaulting. Photo facing southeast. 72

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2.8 Phase 1 architecture, focused on Area 314. 73
2.9 Vaults 5 (left) and 6 (right) as seen and accessed from the reception room
(Area 314). Facing southeast. 73
2.10 Left: Phase 2 architecture (brown), and associated areas of excavation (grey).
Right: Hypothetical Phasing, showing position of Phase 2 and the tablet
archive. 74
2.11 Extensive undulation exhibited by several distinct occupation deposits in the
courtyard (Area 315), as seen in the northeast facing section. 75
2.12 Tall limestone basin found on floor 3190, up against Wall 1050, directly next
to the entrance to Area 314. Facing southeast. 75
2.13 Deep depression in the centre of the courtyard. Facing southwest. 76
2.14 Early Phase 2 floor surface 3190 (grey), showing central depression (white),
associated features (orange/red), and architecture (brown). Illustration: Mary
Shepperson. 76
2.15 Tannurs 3155/3156 associated with surface 3169, alongside Wall 3175, left,
and a rectangular bin feature (3164), right. Facing northeast. 77
2.16 Architectural plan of administrative wing, including still standing Phase 1
walls (brown), remodeled Phase 2 walls (blue), and later Phase 2 dividing
walls (yellow). Associated area names included. 78
2.17 Tablet recycling installation 3081, after excavation. 78
2.18 Plan of Area 300, showing the extent of floor (3111/3121), the position of
tablet recycling installation (3081), and the later dividing Wall (3010), which
separated Area 300 and created Area 305. Illustration: Mary Shepperson. 78
2.19 Oblique view of Areas 600/601 with storage bin, right, and partially
excavated Area 601. Facing southeast. 79
2.20 Aerial view of Area 316, late in its occupational sequence, showing Wall
8011, centre, and material spread to its north side. Facing northeast. 80
2.21 Phase 3 architecture (brown), and associated areas of excavation (dark grey,
in relation to southern part of the building (light grey). Right: Hypothetical
Phasing, showing position of Phases 3a and 3b. 82
2.22 Oblique view of Area 101, excavated to primary floor surface (1080), with
tannur (1086) in northern corner, and threshold (1093) visible through
northwest wall connecting Area 101 with corridor 110. Facing northwest. 83
2.23 Corridor 110 construction, showing gradual lensing of Phase 3a (1092)
below, and the dense ceramic hardcore packing of Phase 3b (1092) above.
Facing southwest. 84
2.24 Architectural plan of Areas 140-143, integrating three main phases. Early
sounding (red dotted line/grey fill); main architectural layout (dark brown);
secondary architectural additions (light brown). 85
2.25 Reed surface 5047 in Area 142. Facing northeast. 86
2.26 Hypothetical phasing, showing position of Phase 4. 87
2.27 Oblique image of House 1. Facing northeast. 88
2.28 Copper spearhead 4003:10 (left). Length 13.3cm. Illustration: Mary
Shepperson. Copper mirror (right). Length 12cm. 88
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2.29 Hypothetical phasing. Shows position of mixed phasing and ephemeral

secondary use. 89
2.30 Two tower rooms, showing paved bases. Left: Aerial view of internal tower
(Area 614). Facing southeast. Right: Oblique view of external corner tower
(Area 304). Facing northwest. 90

3.1 Drone photograph of the south section of the Khaiber public building,
showing both horizontal and vertical excavation in process. Facing southeast. 93
3.2 Excavation of external tower 304. Facing southeast. 93
3.3 Sorting and counting the bulk pottery, left. Recording and illustrating the
diagnostic sherds, right. 95
3.4 Characteristic pattern of inclusion orientation, according to primary forming
technique (Berg 2008: 1178, fig.1). 104
3.5 Comparison of the angle of diagonal inclusions between a rapidly lifted
wheel-thrown vessel, left, and a slowly lifted wheel-thrown vessel, right.
Random voids selected and their angle measured, and the degree measured to
the nearest 5 (Berg 2008: 1180, fig.2). 105
3.6 Base treatment of coarse added clay, visible in the sliced profile of a Kassite
goblet from Tell Ed-Der (van As and Jacobs 1992: 536, fig.7). 106
3.7 Kiln from Nasiriyah pottery workshop, firing vessels made of local alluvial
clays. 109
3.8 Pot_Utility in use. 111

4.1 Comparative stratigraphy of peripheral sites (after Armstrong and Gasche
2014: tbl.9). Blue band indicates the potential period of primary occupation at
Tell Khaiber. 116
4.2 Examples of Early Kassite (c.15h century) Types. 1) p6088-14; 2) p6088-12;
3) p6088-1. 119
4.3 Examples of Late Kassite (c.14th-12th centuries) pottery. 1) p6175-22; 2)
p6175-40; 3) p6178-25; 4) p6183-20; 5) p6178-34; 6) p3102-2; 7) p5045-1; 8)
p5022-63; 9) p3098-9; 10) p5016-11. 119
4.4 A comparison between vessels from the earliest secure levels at Khaiber
(Phase 1), left, and the latest levels (Phase 3b), right. 1) p3125-15; 2) p5040-
20; 3) p3099-13; 4) p5007-4; 5) p3124-18; 6) p3102-2; 7) p5045-1; 8) p5022-
63; 9) p3098-9; 10) p5016-11. 120
4.5 Jugs from Tell Khaiber, alongside close parallels from Tell Ed-Der and
Nippur. 1) p3009-17; 2) Armstrong and Gasche 2014: pl.83.2; 3) p4041-1; 4)
Armstrong 1993: pl.82a. 121
4.6 Jars with grooved rim bands. 1) Khaiber (p6141-1); 2) Babylon (Sternitzke
forthcoming); 3) Failaka (Højlund 1987: 62, fig.215); 4) Yelkhi (Valtz 2002-
2003: tbl.153.13). 122
4.7 Late Old Babylonian period painted Pithos from Tell ed-Der (Armstrong and
Gasche 2014: pl.117.1). Scale: 1:10. 123

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4.8 Decorated beakers: 1) Uruk (van Ess 1988b: 199, fig.34); 2) Tell Khaiber

(p5022-65). 123
4.9 Bowls with impressed decoration beneath rim. 1-2) Tell ed-Der (Gasche 1989:
pl.28.2 and 25.46); 3) Tell Muhammad (Metab and Hamza 2003-2004). 124
4.10 Unstable base cups: 1) Umm Feisit (Woolley 1976: pl.106: 58a); 2) Ur
(AHG/202) (Woolley 1976: pl.106: 58b); 3-4) Tell Khaiber (p4067-24 and
p1085-17). 125
4.11 A graphic to illustrate the most common bowl, cup, and goblet shapes
through time. 1-2) Tell ed-d Der (Armstrong and Gasche 2014: pl.10.9;
Gasche 1989: pl.26.14); 3-5) Khaiber (p3088-138, p1139-126, p1096-307); 6)
Tell ed-Der (Armstrong and Gasche 2014: pl.10.6); 7) Deylam (Armstrong
and Gasche 2014: pl.36.11); 8) Tell ed-Der (Gasche 1989: pl.35.17); 9-10)
Khaiber (p3064-226, p1085-17); 11) Nippur (Armstrong and Gasche 2014:
pl.97.7); 12) Tell ed-Der (Armstrong and Gasche 2014: pl.59.2); 13) Ur
(Manchester Museum #UR35580); 14) Ur (Manchester Museum #UR35579). 126
4.12 A selection of tablewares from Failaka island (Periods 3A and 3B) showing
extensive similarities with those common at Khaiber. Taken from Højlund
(1987): 1) figs.299-300; 2) figs.294-5; 3) figs.266 and 268; 4) figs.271-2; 5)
fig.235; and 6) fig.236. 129
4.13 A selection of tablewares from Qala'at al-Bahrain Period IIIa (Layers 12-14).
#1) 420.AB-B1-1; #2) 420.BJ-BP-3; #3) 420.AF-AU_5; #4) 420.AF-BI-7; #5)
420.AF-AU-4; #6) 420.AF-AU-9; #7) 420.BJ-BP-1; #8) 420.AF-AU-3.
Højlund personal communication 2017. Original illustrations: Daniel
Calderbank. Digital illustrations: Guenever B. Thaarup. 130
4.14 Sealand style vessels from Dhahran. Taken from Zarins (1989): 1) fig.12.4;
2) fig.12.5; 3) fig.12.10; 4) fig.12.3; 5) fig.12.14; and 6) fig.12.15. 131
4.15 Complete storage jars with grooved rim bands, stacked in Room 4 of the
'palace' (Højlund 1987: 142, fig.626). 131

5.1 A local Baghdadi potter, soaking clay in a pit (left) (van As and Jacobs 2014:
90, fig.40), and a baked clay bin from Khaiber, Area 300 (right). 139
5.2 Flowchart for the actions involved in the preparation of the clay body, the
resulting fabric types, and the vessel types generally manufactured of these
Fabrics (see Appendices C and D). 143
5.3 A clay potter's wheel found in the potters' quarter at Ur (c.3000BC). It weighs
44kg (Simpson 1997: 50, fig.1). 145
5.4 Basalt potter's wheel bearing from Tell Sabi Abyad, Room 1 (Duistermaat
2008: 353, fig.V.7). 146
5.5 Stylised illustrations of different wheel types, making use of basalt wheel
bearings: a stick wheel, top, and a kick wheel, bottom (Duistermaat 2008: 376,
fig.V.25). 147
5.6 Slurry effect visible on the exterior surfaces of bowls p3064-276 and p3064-
445. 149

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5.7 Typical examples of interior dimple caused during the closing of the vessel

base; p8082-1 (left) and p9020-42 (right). 151
5.8 An example of the impressed contact lines around lower third of vessel p5022-
62. 152
5.9 Schematised sections of stable cup/jug manufacture, with visible signatures,
and interpreted forming technique. 152
5.10 Schematised sections of unstable cup manufacture, with visible signatures,
and interpreted forming technique. 153
5.11 A hypothetical reconstructed sequence for the manufacture unstable base
cups. 153
5.12 A selection of vessels demonstrating base techniques incorporating the
addition of added chaffy clay, marked by the white dashed line. 1) p1137-5; 2)
p1163-12; 3) p3084-35; 4) p5057-2. 154
5.13 Sections of jar manufacture, with visible signatures, and interpreted forming
technique. 155
5.14 Left: Differential forming techniques on the interior surface of jar p1159-1,
with regular undulations along vertical axis being replaced by regular circular
casts along horizontal axis. Right: Top-down view of spiraling dimple base
(p3085-283). 155
5.15 Top-down view of the interior base of cookpot p5063-1, showing rough
dimple. 156
5.16 Views of pithos ring base, showing the join of ring base application on
exterior (a), and the characteristic spiraling dimple on the interior surface (b);
vessel p6122-1. 157
5.17 Left: Signatures of scraping visible on the exterior surface. Identifiable by
flat horizontal facets, each approximately 5-10mm in height, as well as drag
marks. Vessel p1085-17. Right: Fine striations, typical of turning and finishing
whilst the vessel is inverted on the wheel. Vessel (p5016-8). 158
5.18 A selection of vessels yielding impressed and incised decorative features,
applied with the help of the turning wheel; vessels p5022-66 (left), p1166-203
(right, top), and p9020-112 (right, bottom). 159
5.19 A typical small updraft kiln from Middle Assyrian Tell Sabi Abyad. Left: in
plan. Right: in section (Duistermaat 2008: 499, figs.B.21-22). 161
5.20 Possible reed impressions on the base of vessel p3099-13. 162

6.1 Fused waster stack of bowls from Tell Leilan, c.2300BC (Blackman et al.
1993: 64, fig.2). 176
6.2 Envelope systems for bowls (1-3) and cups (4-8). 183
6.3 A heavily asymmetrical cup with a rough finished base (p8083-23), left, and a
misshapen vessel with a severe crack on the interior base (p8083-44), right. 185
6.4 Envelope system for all Type 5.1 bowls (Grey), overlain by Type 5.1 bowls
from Area 300 (Red). 187
6.5 Classification of general vessel shapes in order of production difficulty (left to
right, top to bottom) (Roux and Corbetta 1989: 111, fig.6). 188

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