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DOCUMENT RESUME
IR 008
ED 190 058
Bhola, H. S.: And Others
AUTHOR
The Elusive Goal of World Literacy.
TITLE
Agency for International Development (Dept. of
INSTITUTION
State), Washington, D.C. Clearinghouse on Development
Communication.
0.
AR
.Apr qo
PUB DATE
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NOTE
background.
Development Communication Report: n30 Apr 1980
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//
*International Programsv *Lite mcy: *Literacy
DESCRIPTORS
-'
iss Media: *National
Education: *Mass Instruction:
Programs
t
*
*QNESCO
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRICT
iscmssions of world
This issue is devoted to
inditate may
4
literacy and national programs which comparative studies
be used is models for futrire UNESCO international campaigns.
'
Individual articles explore economic incentives for literacy
in Jamaicai
mot vation, radio learning prolects, vedia prograts
.discussion of failed literacy
cy improvement in Somalia, and a
list, literaturd and \
res.. A selected bibliography and resource
ven
media reviews, ind information on file 'with ERIC Are
ptoliided.
(RAM..
1
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Reprodoctions supplied by EDRS_are the best that ,can bk made ..
*
-*
A
from the original document.'
*
A
*
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r
TN.
U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALT14.
EDUCATION / WELFARE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCAZION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO
DUCE 0 EXAC TL Y AS RECEIVED F ROM
THE PERSON O.R ORGANIZATION ORIGN.
ATING IT POINTS OF viEW OR OPINIONS
STATED DO NOT NECESSARIL Y RE PRE
SENT OF f lC IAL NATIONAL INSTITU4 Oc
EDUr A TION POSITION OR POL ICY
./
t
LITERACY
THE musrvg GOAL.OF WORLD
.
by
H.S. Shol/A
Development Communication Report
April 1980
.
:No. 30
GS
at.
OM"
"SPA
I I
1111
"1
,
The. Elusive Goal of World
LiteraCy
strategy-
a world campaign for literacy.
.
must be equal to the task.
Experience thus far has sho n that there.
'Mass Campaigns May Be UNESCO's.Next Approach
he success of
are several factors vital to
literacy programs:
literacy effort Was the Experimental World
by H. S. Bhola
National political reso
e.
Literacy Programme (EWLP), cirried out
Dynamic social and çononiic structures
from 1967 to 1973 in collaboration with
literacy campaignS "are more likely to
Literacy is accepted to'day as one of the
UNDP in I I countries. The EWLPIN built
succeed in a societi on the move towards
basic human rights. The Universal Declara;
around the concept of "functional literacy"
greater social justice."
tion "o,C Human Rights, adopted by the
thela that "the very process of learning
Tlie awareness and participation of the
United Nations in 1948, proclaimed that
nd write shOuld.be made an oppor-
to rea
population.
"everyone has the right to education." For
tunity for acquiring information that can
Plans for literacy activities linked with,
the world'kmillions of illiterate adults this
immediately be used to improve living
the educadonal system as a whole and
is translated most often as the right 'to
standards...." (Final Report of the World
geared to economic and social develop-
literacy.
Congress of Ministers of Education on the
ment.
Despitte the steps that have been taken by
Eradication of Illiteracy, Tehran, 1965).
These c9nditions 'are closely intercon-
many Ountries to promote literacy, howev-
The results of the initiatives undertaken
nected; ,"they express a will, a possibility,
er, the problem of illiteracy is growing.
the eradicatidn of il-
by UNESCO for
and a desire for change which find expres-
While the expansion of schooling has man-
literacy, however, have been mainly qualita-
sion in a.planned effort." (UNESCO Docu-
aged to decrease the illiteracy rate of,the
tive. It now seems clear that if we are to aim
ment 20 C/71, 25 August 1978)
world adult population, education haS nor
seriously for the eradication of illiteracy, we
The sum of our experience suggests that
kept pace with high population growth
must undertake international actions that
the strategy for combatting illiteracy must
rates. Thus the total number of adult illiter-
will link plans for the attainment of univer-
ates continues to increase. oln 1970, there
(Continued on page 2)
sal primary education with the launching of
were 742 million illiterate adults in the
world; in 1980, there are some 814 million;
.
and in 1990, there will be 884 million,
Learning?
Is Literacy the Only Road to
unless missive measures are undertaken in
Ridio Is an Alternative
the meantime to eradiCate illiteracy. If we
Basic Education by
the 200 million
add to
statistics
these
children who have no access to 'schools,lt is
with the skills and resources to use such
by Dwight W. Allen
fair to say that abaft one-fourth of the
knowledge to improve the quality of life.
and Stephen Anza(9ne
world's current population is illiterate.
But our conceptualization of the ,baSie
Literacy Ibas been a major concern of
education guaranteed every individual has
UNESCO since the drganization's founding
crystallized around the pole of literacy.
Despite the concerted efforts of t
last
1946. UNESCO's mosi recent major
in
if not synonymous With bask
-4.iteracy,
ate
two decades and a generally declining
education itself, clearly has bee9nriated as
d's
in the percentage of illiterates in the w
THIS MAY RE THE
,
the vestibule to all' other learping, a man-
population, the absolute lumber, of illiter-
/ LAST1SSUE OF DCR-
datory first stage in the learning process for
ates continues to riSeille illiterate popula-
THAT YOU RECEIVE
every individual in every society.
/
tion increased1by 72 million people during
If basic education for the too-many mil-
..,
the 1970s alone. With the lingering dis-
if you have not sent us one of the
lions of poverty-stricken people livirig pre-
couragement over the results of UNESCO's
forms inserted in the last two issues of
dominantly in the rural regions of the
large-scale Experimental World Literacy
DCR. 'fhii is your last chance to keep
developing countries must hinge on literacy,
Progratnme (EWLP), it might appear that
Sfour name od our mailing list. If you
the fufure looks bleak/There is no escaping
the world is ready to give up on literacy.
have not previously completed and
a su
the fact that the operational record
And, maybe We shoidd give up on literacy.
lent in a form, please fill out and mail
iiism
cess with literacy programs has been
Has gur objective gver really been literacy?
tOus the form you whl find on page 15
We have bcen able.tohefptoofewpoplIo
Our objective has been to make a reality of
of this issue. If ye do not hear ,from
n-
become literate, at costs often
onu
the right of every individual to education
you, your naine will not be included
ta4 uneconprnical, and where ther ii ave.,
global knowl-
a d bring to all mankind the
in our new mailing het.
(Continued on pageA)
edge of twentieth-century society, together
publicati n of the
Clearinghouse on Development Communication
A
International Dev,elopme
Suppdrted by the Devil pent Support Bureau of the U.S. A1ncy for
4
4,
A
/
World Lteracy
ICA,FaUNESCO sttây. Each of the selected
Alote
on
countries was invi ed to contribute a case
(Continued fr m page 1)
study and aske
Lit racy Statistics
to 'emphasize certain
involve national mass ciampaigns, composed
aspe,cts of the ca paign, for example:
of a series ofi determibed actiOns Within
Most of the statistics referred to in this
a
well-defined timc span, with total commit-
Algeria
issue of
are UNECO statistics and
DCR
ment of thc nation's will, and with resources
1. The obje
projections. UNESCO qualifies its litera-
ives 'of the campaign were
equal to the needs.
socialist and sught to/consolidate national
cy statistics in several ways. First, there
are gaps in the data available from cer-
independenc
suppress exploitation, and
Tbe ICAE/UNESCO Study
tain nations, and UNESCO overcomes
1fostet.itht s6cial development of thein-
Many nations, particularly thosc that have
dividual.
these by supplying estimated figures. Sec-
experienced profound social and economic
ond, UNESCO's statistics are based on
2. The q&mpaign comprised three sub-
changes and those that are detcrmined to'
updates or prOjections of the results of
campaigns. a mass campaign that stressed
make rapid progress, have conducted nfi-
cial, and economic education
surveys (sometimes made at long inter-
tionwide literacy campaigns to encourage
vals), on observed trends in thc educa-
while fociising On the three Rs; a functional
and facilitate modernization. In ordvi to
tional system, and on the demographic
literacy campaign in the agricultural sector;
capitalize on the experience gained from
estimates and proiections of the Unitcd
and a functional literacy campaign in the in-
these campaigns, UNESCO, has c mmis-
tlations. This method is subject to fairly
dustrial sector.
sioned the International CoUncil
r Adult
wi-ae margins of error in that it
3. The campaign strategy was used .to
may not
Education (ICAE), in Toronto, v: nada, to
take into consideration the results of
maintain a balanced emphasis on both a
prepare a cOmparative study or e role of
newly liunched out-of-school programs,
selectiye and a mass approach.
the successful natidnal literacy ampiiigns of
accelerations or improvements in school
4. Ititeracy courses in the selfqnanaging
the ,twentieth century in'the
veloprnent of
enrollments, or changes in population
agric Rural and industrial sectors have been
the nation in which each w
conducted.
trends. Third, the 'concept of a literate
integ ated into the work schedules.
The priniary resource
aterial for the
person varies widely from country to
'11 'be a series of
ICAE/UNESCO study
14.
Bra4il
country, ranging from the abilizy
to
case studies of siguific
mass literacy cam-
I .1 The government's commitment to the
decipher a simple text to the completion
a wide variety of
paigns, representin
campaign has been strong, based on the
or
full primary schooling. Giveh these
historical, political
dial, economic, and
be,lief that literacy must serve as the founda-
reservations, the statistics are provided
cultural settings. T e countriei selected for
tion for modernization. In 1979 mote than
to set a context for discussion.
the case studies
Algeria, Brazil, Burma,
100 million dollars were spent on literacy
China, Cuba, K
ea, Soinalia, Tanzania, the
programs.
paign was directly linked with the formal
USSR, and Vi nam.,While these ten coun-
Highly sophisticated
administrative
2.
education system.
tries will co
tituteAte basic pool of data,
and technical systems that were established*
5. The literacy organization, MOBRAL,
centrally were complemented by de-
experiences elsewpere will not be excluded
has used whatever would work in terms of
from theilnalysis. (The recent mass cam-'
centralized implementation strategies.
teaching methods and materials, including
paigns b(cIndia; Kenya, and' Iraq could not
3. The single national primer used, to
telealision, radio, conventional classroom
be inc uded in. the study because it is still
teach functional literacy was designed to
teaching patterns, self-instruction, and
rly for data to have accumulated and,
too
elicit and to be supplemented by locally
each-one-teach-one approaches.
res lts analyzed.)
generated and locally responsive materials.
Burma
cause of the dearth of reliable docu-
4. By offering a 12- to 18-month'integrat-
.1. The campaign is tray a "mass move-
entation, thc case studies were specially
ed program of instruction equivalent to one
ment," in that the government of Burma
commissioned within the framework of the
to four years of schooling, the literacy cam-
offers only advice on means of increasing
"organizational power," but no special fi-
Estimited percentages and numbers (In
millions)
of literate and Illiterate adults in the world, age
nancial allocations. The costs involved in
15 and older.
froll
becoming literate are incurred by the peo-
1950
ple who receive the training.
rf
2. Four-tiercd organizational structures
700m 55.7%
44.3%
879m
with personnel at thc central, divisional,
19605-r
township, and grassroots levels have been
A
established. These have both horizontal and
735m
39.3%
vertical integration among the three parallel
60.7%
11
*
systems of the governmept, -the piny, and
1970
tail
the literacy committee.
3. Although the campain is national in its
I
I
742in
32.4%'
67.6%
vision, it is implemented! in increments. An
area is targeted, the popnlation is motivated
1980
.
.
PlailMaiMill
and mobilized, and .the
campaign
is
launched, fasting until tIre populace of that
814 m 71.7%
28.9%
2004 m
area is literate.
'
1990
4. The literacy cla ses
initially stress
it
reading) writing, and a ithmetic, with func-
884 m 74.3%
it
25.1%
tionality and work-oriebted aspects appear-
,
ing in the post-literacy phases.
ILLITERATE
LITERATE
5. The complete attainment of literacy is
fducation has not kept pace with population growt1; therefore, while the percentage of the qdult
ascertained by the use of rotating evalua-
population that Is Illiterate has declined, the total number of Illiterate adults continues to grow.
(Continucd on page 3)
graphics by rlinoihy Bradford Ward
3
iy sax and major geographic area.
Pareantagalof the adult population that
ucted by .neighbori4g villages on
tions co
so
one ano
.
72.8
China
1. The motives for the camp.ign included
70
.the diffusion Of the Marxist philosophy, the
encouragement of political 'socialization,
the destruction of class barriers, and the
economic development of the:state.
2. The.literacy campaign was intertwined
50
wit4 the reformation of the language and the
simplification of the writing dystem.
3. The literacy classes becaitie linked with
a more or less formalized sy4em of spare-
.
time education.
30
Cuba
1. The campaign was massiive and quick,
lasting only eight months (in 1961) and
30
making literate 90 percent of the previously
illiterate population.
2. The campaign was charged with the
4.3
dual functions of eradicating illitiracy and
0.5 0.5
1.8
integrating the 13eople into 0st-revolution-
1,1;23
Latin
South
Africa
World
Europe
ary Cuba.
Ameica
Japan
Asia
E
3. During its course, the literacy cam-
t difference's
acy rate kirtemales is alwaysohlgher than that tor males. The great
paign was under physical attack by counter-
The hilt
the areas with the highest overall illiteracy rates; namely Africa and
occur in
betwoenjthe rates
revolutionaries.
South A41a.
1
Tanzania
cial resources to this ask. It should also
noteworthy elements of the campaign.
1. The literacy campaignwas the result of
present the mass national Campaign as a pro-
3. A ajor policy of the literacy campaign
the national political will, with firm support
mising and preferred alternative. As an
was it4 integration with different kinds of
from the president and the ruling party.,
report should
manual, the
post-1. eracy programs and with the formal
organization
2. The results of thepilot projects, which
make clear the social, economic, and politi-
prim
y. education system.
tested fieldwork, training, and pedagogical
cal conditions, that would make a country
ith the literacy campaign continuing
4.
procedures, were used to conduct the full
ripe for a national literacy
caMpaign. It
unde1 the conditions of war, it was charac-
campaign.
teriz d by mobility, flexibility, and in
should.communiCate to plannersand organ-
3. Elaborate systems were established for
-
izers a real sen$ of the level of response and
roducing instruc-
nova iveness.
training personnel and
the depth cif commitment ne4essary for
using the
cially
materials,
tional
. esp
i
national. literacy campaign.
organizing
The Final Report
workshop mechanism.
!
And finally, kt should provide general Wg-
e project's tentative schedule calls for
admin-
4., All elements of the campaign\s
gestions, based on evidence, for the actual
the completion of the individual coun ry
istration were well coorklinated.
organization of literacy campaigns. Let us
studies by May 31, 1980.,At this po4nt,
5. Four levels of aci4evement were con-
hope, for the sake of the millions who do not
Bhola, the Project Director, qin
ro-
H.
ing to become func-
ceived for those attemp
.
wish to reinain illiterate, that experience
ce d to compare and analyze the politi
national testing pro-
all,
tionally literite, with a
will ogee again prove itself a good teacher..
cal
ec nomic, sociological, and :psyclIolo
el of achievement.
grain'to identify the le
asj,ects of thi campaigns. Conclusions jVil
e need for universal
6. Recognition of t
For further information contact 11.5.
be offered in!the final reports in a sum ary
erged as a conse-
primary education e
Bhola, Indiana University, School of Educa-
moranduin to policy pa ers td
an-
campaign.
.quence of the literacy
tion, Bloothington, Indiana 47405: U.S.A.
Ins.
n r
Pending acceptance by UNESCO the
over the
known all
7. The campaign i
Pol.:iota- 4f-this article were adapted from
of
al report, including distil ed versio
ent help it got from
world for the excel
the final report on a seminar held in Decem-
be publishe
itudies,
will
in
case
Radio Tanzania and he Institute for Adult
Ee
ber 1979 in conjunction with this project,
4
nglish, French, Spanish and poss bly
laam. The radio cam-
Education in Dar es
sponsoreff by the German Foundation for
rabic, and presented at a Dissemin ion
paigns on nutrition and health infused great
report,
Internanonal Development!.
This
pur,
Seminar tentative& planne
for :.t.id
vigor into the literacy campaign.
the Context of
"Literacy Campaigns in
India, in December 1981.
Vietnam
Devllopment," was edited by Gary Brown
.
In its function as a policY brief, theiinal
1. The campaign was directly related to
and-is ,available from Dr. Josef Muller,
report wijl give pOlicy mak rs and plainers
the Vietnamese culture and social reality.
Education and Science Branch, German
arguments to juptify th
-promotiOin of
2. Language reforM and the democratiza-
Fo4ndation for Ifuernational Development,
weje two of the
nd the dllocation of scaree wan-
literacy
tion of the language
5300 Bonn, I, Federal
Siihroi.kstrasse, I
,
I.
I
Republic of Germany.
1
i
re ar at presesit p
00 'million 'adult
edthat
It tea be est
ti.S. Øhola, professOr of edutation at Iadiana
ryten,- lie can
er reada-write, nq
th ree ad ts rn e
Uftiversity, was rditor of the recent serjes of
apProxiMidtel
r
Literacy in Developmeu,
their nimiher is i
trMning
i
eat
Illiterates ire
.
pf t
"
sum: six:-
for
Institute
t e
International
published by
opposit sex.
thaathat
.
in
Adolf Literacy Methods
Tehran. Iran. He Is
i
78
(proctor of the II4E/UN pC0 project, and will
..,
.
I
1
write the final Oport to UNESCO.
I
I
01.
4
V.
Learning by Radio
;
Nearly threeluarters of the world's illiterates live in Asia, approximately 20 pekent
(Continued from page 1)
in Afrj. a, an4Sspercent in Latin America. More than 400 million illiteratei, i.e. the
been no real prospects for providing the
rld illiterate populations, are to be found in only 11 countries, 7 of
majorit
of the
resources to maintain these skills.
whicb ..: ,Asian. By 1980, 23'countries will have an illiteracy rate that is higher than
It might be recalled that the EWLP was
,
including 18 African and 4 Asian countries.
airned at one million adults, and only some
UNESCO, August 1978
:
I
120,000 reached literacy. Other programs
4'
have not even been this successful. High
o
will need to redefine what is meant by basic
Of schooling does not influence contact with
dropout rates in literacy projects are com-
education. A good starting point
the
is
agricultural technicians and only moderate-
pounded in succeeding years when suc-
definition advanced by the World Bank:
ly influen ot es eitposure to other (nonprint)
cessful completers lapse back into illiteracy.
an attempt. despite
Basic education
is
agrictItural extension. (Freder-
sources
is often painfully dramatic. In one
This
severe resource constrarnts, to meet the
ick C. Fliegel, '4-iteracy and Expsure to
portions of the
Asian country it was found that the majority
needs of substantial
Instrumental InfOrmation Ainong Farmers
of pupils finishing four years of primary
population who do not have access to even
in Southern Brazil." Ruial Sociology, Vol.
minimuM educational opportunities. It is a
education became illiterate again within
supplement. not a rival, to the formal
31, No. I, March 1966.)
three years. (Manzoor Ahmed, The Eco-
educational system, and is intended to pro-
te4uisite
The necessity of literacy as a pr
nomics of Non.formal Education: Resources.
vide a functionhl, flexible, and low-cost
in the. development process has been dis-
education for . those whom thp formal
Costs and Benefits. New York: Praeger,
puted:by other observers as well. Hornik,
system cannot reath or has already passed
1975.)
of basic.
by. . . The objectives and content
Mayo, and McAnanytwrite:
The high dropout rate tends to
.
praduce
education are functionally defined
Up until in
literacy
quite
recently.
was
ecromic anomalies. Ahmed cites a case
terms of "minimum learning needs" of
regarded as the fundamental human skill
specially identified groups, and not as
where the high dropout rate (49 out of each
without which modern knowledge could
steps in the educational hierarchy. ...
na spread; without literacy. it was feared.
SD failing to complete) resulted in a cost per
rulal communities vtould remain isolated
literate of $ I .600 instead of the $32.80 that
A recent study prepared for ... (UNICEF)
an4I underdeveloped. Literacy is still con-
would have occurred had all completed.
has defined "miiiimum learning needs" for
in building self-
sidered a vital
factor
individuals as a threshold level of learning
Even more successful programs are still not
esteem and in motivating rural people to
in econoniic,
required for participation
adopt other "mOdern"" behaviors and at-
cost-effective.
social, and political activities. These essen-
most development experts
titudes,
tiut
We must devise a program of basic 'educa-
functional.
tial
learning
include
needs
setm to agree that substantial progress can
tion for the rural masses. not being effec-
(our emphasisl . and numeracy
literacy
be made by rural people even if they re-
tively served by schools, and we must reap-
(skill in using numbers), knowledge and
main illiterate.'
skills for productive activity, family plan-
,
.
praise therole of literacy in such an under-
From this evidence, the authors wish not
ning and health, child care, nutrition,
taking. We should consider the possibility
to conclude that literacy is not important in
sanitation, and knowledge required for
a comprehensive program of radio
that
the development of education Or society,
divic participation. They can be lwera-
education may be an alternative to literacy
tionally defined as "minimum learning
nor that any country should abandon its
packages" to be attained by all, compara-
for the rural poor.
efforts tO ensure tile literacy of its citizens.
ble to the term "poveisty line" which refers
Itather, we simply wish to contend that basic
to minimum family income.2
The Legacy of Literacy
education does not necessarily require liter-
Bank's
The chief objection to the World
today's world the uses of literacy are
In
acy:as its starting point.
is the ascription of 'functional
definition
and they are obvious. Perhaps this
. many
literacy as the first of several minimum
Ba4ic Education
reality has been so overpowering that it-has
learning needs. This is certainly in keeping
A particular notion of "basic education"
caused us to believe that literacy can be and
with tradition, and the World Bank is not
has been popping into international educa-
rieeds to be used to do anything and every-
'alone in this regard.,We might naturally ex-
tional discussion during the past few years.
thing. It is not surprising that our develop-
pect that, unless literacy is explicitly given a
Today's basic education looks not funda-
ment efforts refle ct the seeming omnipo-
different role from the past, then literacy as
mentally different from yesterday's func-
tence of literacy. Development strategies
a minimum learning need in.a basic cycle of
tional literacy, perhaps only slightly dressed
have linked the introduction of new agricul-
learning will continue to be the starting
uP, to ensure that it will command a place in
tural methods th literacy among farmers.
all
point and the currency necessary for
rural development strategies. The verbal
Literacy, it has been argued, is needed to
other learning. We find ourselves pointed at
feint might reflect recognition tharuniversal
make it possible to read farming pamphlets
the same historical impasse where our only
not .going
or simply to
primary education
to
be
with
facilitate
interaction
is
some combina-
option remains the same
realized in the poorer countries anytime in
agricultural extension officers.
tion of expanding primary-school enroll-
the near future, and that children will have
This belief is so widespread that the coun-
ment, multiplying the number 'of functional
to join adults in out-of-school functional-
terargument became, in at least one case, the
literacy projects, 'And hoping that in the
literacy-type programs.
topic of a specifid research investigation. A
' process literacy ca4 be made functional for
The recent concern for basic education
study of farmers in Brazil found no direct
everyone by a thusfar unforeseen explosion
signals, at least tkitly, the desire for a shift
relationshippebetween literacy or level of
of printed materialawith sufficient fallout to
in direction away from the failures of the
schooling and behavior conducive to devel-
paper the. remoteInral regions. Again, we
We
6 past. But this does not go far enough.
opment. It Was shown that literacy or level
are peering througltthe same keyhole where
literacy is.the key:6;i learning. This learning
Reseurch has demonstrateil that the problems facing literdcy programs are not those of
pedatogy or sophisticated methodology. TheY are largely organizational,
K. Mayo, and Ernile G.
I. Robert Hdrnik, ..1Ohn
McAnany. "The Mass Media in Rural Education.- in The
tural, stemming from the lack of mechanisms to trak literacy
admiizistrative, and str
Education and Rural
World Book of Educatk)n ION
ning materials, implemAt and support effective teamwork at
:iachers, distribute le
Development. EsiCl'hilip Foster aird James R. Sheffield
,
the pkoject level .
(London. Evans Or4ithers, 1973), p. 80.
. . .
Working Paper (Washington,
2. Education.! '...etor
The World of Literacy
D.C.: World Bari
j 1974).
5
4
developing world and for the world as a
delivered in 'a content-rich and .econom----
is likely to be preempted as before because
whole; The implications of the spread of
ically viable way.by.radio. The most impor-
those people unable to'become or stay liter-
.
tant feature of such a program of basic
radidare unaerscovti by Wilbur Schramm:
ate are not able to acquire dr maintain the
education. is that learning would be chiefly'
currenc9 necessary for continued learning.
If there is a'medium for nonformal educa-
an oral process, parallel tp ways that social
Tile authors do not believe that literacy
tion, it is radio. The reason for this is il-
lustrated by Paul Theroux's study of raid
transactions take place in traditional socie-
learning
should be considered a
minimum
radio in Uganda, in which he reported that
Sties. Literacy would not be a prerequisite to
need at all
however fundamentally Hit-
whereas 87.8 percent of the families he
learning by radio.. But literacy instruction
portant literacy always will be in places
surveyed have no electricity, 86.3 percent
functional. To define
would, ofcourse. be inCluded for those peo=
where
its use
is
have radios.4 In other words, radio is the
ple.r able to become literate: The essential
one longfrange, easily deliverable medium
literacy as an "educational poverty line" in
that overleaps the conwnest barriers to
basic education
that
poins, .however,
a traditional society is to set this litie neither
is
instruction in ;emote areas.
would continue rather than begin
with
too high nor too low but ratherthrough the
literacy. Literaci would no longer be the
The capabilities of radio used in instruc-
wrong criterion, where it.can block access
tion have been clearly demonstrated, for
keyhole to the learning process.
to the information and skills imeeded for
.
well-being and, development. Instead of
The radio education program would 'Offer
diverse purposes and in diverse settings. Stu-
a curriculum core appropriate for multiple,
literacy being_ defined as a prerequisite to
dents in Japan can obtain an entire_ second-
ary education by radio.
the United
clienteles. A country's broadcasting. capa-
basic education or as the currency of the
In-
.
bilities would be able td accommodate a
literacy might find
Kingdom, tadio plays an important part in
learning process.,
its
.
varietyof simultaneous offerings, in a diver-
the offerings of the Open University. Col-
proper place at some midpoint in the learn-
of formats, to make provision
lot,
ombii's Radio Sutatenza is often cited as an
ing process when access to print materials,
sity
becomes a reality, when a person prepares
to enter a formal system of education, or
rioted that the enormous scale of illiteracy cries
Mass media expert Menry Cassirer. .
. .
when literacy becomes truly functional to
out for literacy instruction using modern technologg but that relatively little headway
his or her life.
is be* made. The reason is that the scope and objectives of mass meaia do not
t
The issue of literacy aside, the World
corresiond to those in functional literacy instruction. Mass media are economic only. .
Bank's suggestion of minimum learning
when applied on a massive scale. Functional literacy teaching frequently requires
needs provides a useful outline of the possi-
specific content.
The World of Literacy
ble content of basic education programs.
The authors' purpose here is to propose that
different levels of audience ability and in-
example of the potential impact of radio in
in the coming discussion on basic education
volvement. Priority must be given to the
adult education. The Nicaraguan Radio
the connection of literacy to this trdertale
minimum learning needs of rural adults and
Mathematics Project has reported great suc-
ing be treated as problematic. We believe
children not in school. It is also desirable
cess. Other examples abound: successful
there are alternatives. We feel strongly that
that the radio programs be used in, such a
language teaching and elementary education
io educa-
a comprehensive program of r
way as to interface with 'the regular school
projects in Mexico,,radio farm forums and
don should be developed as t e principal
African
clubs
adult-listening
various
curriculum. Not only would this lead to cur-
in
means of delivery for basic education.
countries, the widespread use of educational
ricular improvements in the school, it %;/ould
broadcasting for'scfiool audiences in Thai-
help bridge the gap between learning in the
Basic Education by Radio
land, the Radio Mensaje project for farmers
school and home environments.
The tectinical feasibility of radio for mass
We see radio educdion not as an "add-
in Ecuador, and the out-of-school offerings
education is not in question. Radio is cheap,
of Radio Santa Maria in the
Dominicad
otr to the nonformal system of education
simple, reliable, and appropriate. In 1972
but rather as a vital component pear-dering
Republ ic.
the International Commission on the Devel-
6 But despite radio's" widespread and effec-
the system itself. The developmiint of radiol
opment of Education noted the promise of
capacity must be
tive use in education, systematic develop-
education's functional
rising that a
education by radio; it
is
'
ment of its potential has been thwarted by
ation
assigned highest priority in baSiC'
major proposal for the use of adio for-basic
we have not really ex-
strategies. To be effective, radio e
our expectations
ation
een advanced.
education has not already
again, a cur-
pected much from radio,,Too often, radio
must be self-contained
The commission notes the f llowing:
has been used unimaginatively in a supple-
riculum core addressing the myriad learning
Radio is the only advanced communica-
tion technique which has found its proper
mentary role, modeling rather than develop-
needs of multiple clienteles. As .a self-con-
place in developing countries. Where con-
ing 'according to its own dynamic. As a
tained component of nonformal education,
ditions have permitted, it has become well
readt, the character of radio education
basic education by radio should offer learn-
established and widespread. Yet, it seems
tends to reflect traditional, classroom-like
ing continuity and mike it psible for som!..
to us that insufficient educational use is
learners to go beyond minimum learning
education adapted to the medium of radio,
made of this virtually universal method of
People often seem to
distribution.
be
needs to literacy and for some to gain ac-
and not an exercise in mass communications
deterred by the reputedly greater efficien-
oriented to education. Program formats
cess, entirely via this nonformal route, to
/
cy of other media which, however, have the
have often been restrictively monotonous
formal seco.ndaryAchooling.
major defect, compared with radio, of
and ill-suited to
radio's special
charac-
A basic education radio program his the
being uflable to hope for such widespread
J1`
for a
teriitics. .The immediacy and vitality of
or anything like it
distribution
potential to develop the outreach to reorder
long time to come. The very low cost and
radio have been lost with the reproduction
the entire system of nonformal e9ç.aion.
climates of
all
in
adequate reliability
of the dull "teacher monblogue" format
This 'derives from our ,view that fitonfortpal
miniature transistor radios mean that radio
..
over.tki air waves. A new mandate for r_aato
'
.(Continued on page I))
broadcasting should more and more be
r.
.
.
to find the failurertif the
educaron
is sloe
recognized as a particularly Suitable medi-
3. E: Faure. et al.. Learning (a Be (Iris and London:
um for educational purposes)
past as instructive as the.successes.
LiNESCO-Harrap, 1972)!'
1,
;um EdutAion by Radio'An Experiment
Looking at the proven worth and even
i 4. Paul
Today, the number of radios cr inhabi-
up Listening far Adults in
lin Rural
Uganda.
4reatet promise of radio in instruction, the
tant exceeds the number of copies of daily
It Studies Center. Occasional Paper No. 6
Makerete A
authors contend that basic educaVngan be
newspapers, per inhabitant, both for. the
(Kampala. Uganda-,Makerere College, undated).
6
provide reconimendations on how to en-
tconoir4c.incentives
Using
hance literacy motivation in skills training
programs through the use of appropriate
for Literacy. Motivatiori
task assessment techniques, teaching meth-
ods, materials development approaches, and
self-evaluation procedures.
_Jascognizing that a learner's view of the
is determined in large
value of literacy
\ methOds, but on letting them evolve through
by Mary C. Rainey
-
measure by the opportunities for real
practice.
change in the learner's cirCumstance, the
Following the Experimental World Liter-
research will explore how economic incen-
acy Programme, UNESCO, the community
The international development cogimuni-
tives may be related to other variables in
of private voluntary organizations (PV0s),
ty is giving renewed attention to investigat-
achieving literacy, such as the stage and rate
and host national groups have continued to
ing the best way to aid literacy efforts in the
9f economic development, the percentage of
support smaller scale research studies and
developing world. Recognizing that- the
the local population that is literate, the. po-
literacy. These efforts
pilot programs in
growing number of illiterates tends to im-
litical climate with regard to human re-
in alr
highlight thd need to be sensitive and
sectors,
pede development efforts
source development, the comPlexity of the
responsive to themotivation of, learners. A
planners are giving high priority to literacy
Written language and its status in relation to
question emerging from these efforts is to
training. In line with this trend, Creative
spoken languages, and the nature and
what extent econ mic improvement affects
-Associates, Inc., is conducting the Literacy
amount of reading material available.
the acquisition o literacy, that is, will the
Oriented Functional Education 'Project, a
In' order to determine how program
promise of econ mic improvement serve as
three-year research study to explore what
design can respond better to the need of
a strong incentive for adUlts and out-of-
effect the promise of increased economic
learners, the researchers will gather data on
school Youths in literacy training programs?
well-being bas on literacy motivation. The
levels of.literacy motivation and achieve-
The research being b'onducted by CreatiVe
project, sponsored by the U.S. Agency for
Associates will focus.,on identifying the
ment by age, sex, occupation, socioeconom-
International Development, will test ways
ic status, and prior education. A second im-
strengths of economic incentives in terms of
to use economic incentives to enhance
portant focus will be on the nature and
costs and benefits to individutls participat-
motivation among out-of-school
literacy
tent of learner participation in planning and
ing in skills training programs. It will con-
skills
youths and adults participating
in
managing the literacy training program.
sider differing perceptions of the value and
training programs. :
will try to identify
utility of becoming literate on the part of
Project researchers
Brow:11y speaking, individuals are moti-
factors that contribute to effective. literacy
subsistence, self-employed, and salaried
vated to become literate by a combination of
--
instruction in skills training programs, in-
workers.
political, cultural, and economic incen
cluding training methods, class size, sched-
In order to obtain a sample of people who
n-
Political incentives tend to prevail in
.
ule, duration, membership criteria, allt the
have already shown some economic motiva-
tries rat ere the literacy program is estab-
amount and kind, of training provided to in-
tion. the study will select its subjects from
lished th ough a directive initiated and im-
structors. It is expected that this research
individuals registered voluntarily in skills
plemente- by a national 'leader, as in Cuba
_will result in a sourcebook-of tested recom-
training pfograms in-two project sites, one
descriNon
and Somalia. (See page 8 for a
mendations for literacy and skills training
in Latin America and one in either Africa of
of the Somalia campaign). Cultural incen-
specialists who wish to adapt or establish a
Asia. The study will exclude individuals
tives t'o become literate can be historically
curriculum to enhance literacy motivation
participating in programs that reward at-
rooted in a culture, as in China, where
in skills training programs.
tendance (with monetary payment or food,
literacy is valued in itself. Economic incen-
for example), that are part of a masi literacy
tives can be seen as those that hold the
campaign, that focus on religious content,
Persons who know of or are doing related
promise of a better quality of life, as literacy
or that achieve enrollment through coercion
work and who wish to be kept informed of
gives the individual greater atcess to re-
(by fining absences, for example).
this research are invited to write to Dr. Mary
sources. A better quality of life may result
A major premiie of this study, in contrast
C. Rainey, Literacy Oriented Functional
from a better job; from an increased ability
to the EWLP, is that
literacy accompanies
Education Project, Creative Associates,
activities
modernizing
participate
to
in
or follows, rather than precedes, develop-
Inc., 4419 39th Street, N.W., Washington,
ccess to information in nevispa-
through
proposes that motivation toward
ment. It
D.C. 20016, U.S.A. Project materials will be
booklets, educational
st untional
pe rs,
litel,acy increases when the potential leicner
made availabk on an exchange basis.
pamphlets, and posters; or merely from an
perceives an opportunity to increase his or
increased capacity to survive in the market:
her economic productivity with the help of
project directoi of the
Mary C. Rainey
place among those whoare literate and who
is
literacy and numeracy. The research will
Literacy Oriented Functional Education Project.
advantage.
use their skills td their own
Other programs and projects have pre-
viously addressed the question of how to use
Literacy:
Funciional
-
On
economic incentives systematically in litera-
literacy should be regarded as a way afpreparing man
Rather thanan end in itself. .
. ,
.
the relationship
jar beyond the limits of rudimeniaty
cy programs. For example,
for a social, civic, and economic role that goes
The Very
between literacy 'and econotnic productivity
literacy tiaining consisting merely in the teaching of reading and writing.
was a major focus of the UNESCO/UNDP
should be made an Opportwiity for acquiring
process of learning to read and write
Experimental World Literacy. Programme
infoimation that can immediately be used to imProve livingstandaids; reading and
(EWLP), conducted from 1967 to 1973..
:.
Wilting should lead not only to elementary knowledge but to training for work,
However, the EWLP did not-provide a
better undetyanding
increased productivity, a greatkr participation' in civil life and a
human Culturi.
clear, proven set of,recommendations that
of the surrounding world, and shodld ultimately open the way to basic
Final lteport of the World Congress of Ministeri
gorrnments and donor agencies could use
.
plan future efforts. Energies were con:
Edueatihn on the Eradication'of Illiteracy,Tehran, 1965
to
centrated, not on testing established
C.
'7
Language
1i/hat
ip.between a resider andhis culture is an intimate one. Not onlyis his
The re
for Literacy?
languakVery closegy tiedip with his thinking afrout regional and social processes,
.. but the fact of the matter-is that the "real world" islto a large extent unconsciously, ,
built upon ihe language habiti of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently
.
'
shoilar tobe considered the same social reality.
.
'by Om Shrivastava
..
.
Edward Sapir
.
ard regional language.' The study compares
literacy education. There has been, howev-
The choice of language for literacy teach-
er, a significant Fmount of research done
the gains in functional literacy skills when
ing is of vital importance and involves an
the initial exposure to written text material\
with children as/subjects in formal educa-
almost endless list of politicaleconomic,
tional settings, and it \has raised two con-
was in the dialect, to the gains when the ini-
educational, and social concerns. The sub-
choice of
theories about the
tial exposure was in the standard regional
troversial
ject is important because it appears to be
language,.which was not the learner's first
language of instruction that have relevance
psychologically anctculturally sound to pro-
l.
for adult lea
language.
,rners as wel
vide education in the language of the learner
of the
controversy are
On one liCie
The subjects of the study were 369 learn-
the .mother tongue. The language ques-
adult
ers chosen from those enrolled in an
researchers who support the direct method
'tion has been a subject of discussion since
Rajasthan, India.
that.of bypassing the mottier tongue and
education program
the early part of the nineteenth century,
in
They were divided into two groups. One
who
teaching only in the secontd language
when it revolved around the education of
state the advantages of their position as
the Dialect Group
group of learners
children. More recently, the spread of
I
was instructed in.reading and writing skills
follows:
literacy work among adults the world over
The learner becomes confused by first
L. at the basic literacy level, first in the mother
has brought the discussion to the field of
tongue, and then in the standard regional
learning to read in the mother tonjue and
1
adult education.
then .having to tr nsfer to another lan-
the Regional
language. The other group
When countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
went through the pro-
guage,.
Language GrouP
America became independent, the quevion
gram from beginning to end in the standard
literacy became
of language choice for
Teaching literacy in the doMinant lan-
regional language. In this study, the dialect
linked to issues of cultural identity and
guage will give the learner tools for ad-
was Wagadi, and the standard regional
Political concern revolved a-
mission to the dominant culture and Will
tiound
language was Hindi; both used Devanagari
the desire to absorb small groups into
)ationalism-.
aid in his or her economic development.
"--""
script. The achievement of the two groups
larger communities and to unify the diverse
Some silbjects, such as-Mathematics, are
was measured through a functional literacy
cultural and political groups witliin a na-
more easily handled with only one lan-
skills test designed for this study.
tion. Financial and technical issues have in-
guage.
The lata show that the overall functional
44
chided policy decisions related to budgets
-The learner will learn more quickly and
JaLthe two groups were not
litera
for education and the availability of tiained
will be competent soon& if all instruc-
significantly different. The overall func-
staff and other resources. Social and
tion is in the second language.
tional.literacy score was made up of scores
cultural issues have centered on the ques-
Typically, the teacher is better trained in
on the component pails of literacy: reading,
tioneof access to Western culture and tech-
the national language than in the local
writing, comprehension, and numeracy. A
nology, and on. changes in traditional
'further analysis showed that the Dialect
.
language.
customs related to such factors as distribu-
Group hadsbetter scores than the Regional
tion of population, division of labor, and
On the other side are researchers who
Language Group in writing and numeracy,
social and religious taboos. Linguistic fac-
state the advantages of the mother tongue
but there was no significant difference in
translating
.tors haveincluded problems of
approach:
reading and'comptehension scores.
new and technical yocabulary into tradi-
Once a learner has learned to read,
Teachers' records and assessments Of the
tional langttages, and of giving traditional
transferring this skill to another language
groups showed that the Dialect Group of
languages a written form.
is 'easy; the second language can be in-
learners tookjewe r. days to reach ;he basic
UNESCO suggested as earls)/ as 1953 that,
troduced systematically.
literacy and numeracy level than did the
in order to speed education for the masses,
The learner will learn to read more easily
Regional Language Group of learners.
the language ,orinstruction should initially
4;
if the material makes sense to him or her,
Teachers also rated the Dialect Group bet-
be the mother tongue of thellearner,.using
and will be more likely to develop a sense
ter than the Regional Language Group both
thescript of the regionalitatipnal language.
of success in learning.
in maintaining interest, and in achievement,
Then, by a transfer process, the learner
The teacher has a potentially stronger
although the perceived superiority in
should be given instruction in the region-
relationship to the community.
achievement was not substantiated by the
al/national language. It was reasoned that
research results.
sd\ far
Although the
are
in-
this approach would create more interest
studies
In addition to the insights gained abdut
conclusive On a number of iignificant ques-
among the learners, make it easier for them
language of instructkm
literacy
in
the
tions, they do indicate a leaning toward the
td learn, and preserve their pride in'their
education, another set of findings came out
mother tongue-regional/national language
own culture. At the same time, learning the
of the- daily diaries of thp teachers, the
app&ach. These conclusions, however,
regional/national language would give them
supervisors' assessment sohedules, observa-
were based on research done on children.
access to the dominant culture and to the
tions in the field, and conversations with the
Very little research is yet available when the
economic system.
teachers and supervisors. It was generally
subjects are adult learners.
Although Many international bodies have
agreed that the involvement of-the learners
The author therefore undertoolc to study
recognize& the importance and discUssed
and the village community as a whole in
the effects of using the dialect of the adult
the implications of learning to read and
starting and running the literacy center is an
learner in the initial stage of a puffgram in
write in the mother tongue, there has been
important `factot, in its success, and that
which the final aim was for the learner to ac-
little systematic research:with adult learn-
(Confirmed on page 11)
quire functional literacy skills in the stand-
in'
ers, on the use of 'the mother tongue
9.
8
Somalia's Mass Literacy Campaign:
health improvement; and 4) a census of both
peoplc and livestock.
,
The People Carried the Message
Literacy was not seen als an end in itself,
but rather as a means to expose the people to
new systems, methods, and ideas;. expand
their awareness of their own community and
sold or traded for other goods. The nomads
The Revolutionary Government that took
of life beyond their community; stimulate
control of Somalia in 1969 immediately
are always on the move, looking for pasturc
their awareness of the central government
and Water for their herds, and their move-
began to look at ways to approach a problem
and its services; urge the p*eople to becomc
they considered crucial to the country's
ments are not very predictable. In less dry
involved in national development; and im-
areas, particularly in the south, the people
development: education. The formal educa-
prove communicition and self-reliance. The
tion sjtstem was not only outmoded and ir-
combine animal husbandry with agriculture
catnpaign had strong political goals. The
relevant td all but a small core of The coun-
and lead a somewhat more settled existence.
Direcior-General of the Ministry of Educa-
try's elite, it was conccntrated almost ex-
With an economy based on small herds of
tion at that time, Mohamed H. Adan, pro-
livestock and limited cultivation, Somalia is
clusively in the urban areas. Fifty to 60 per-
jected that "through the teaching of our
among the poorest countries in Africa; its
ccnt of Somalia's three million-plus popula-
revolutionary principles, i.e. the teaching of
estimated per capita GNP is US$110.
tion are nomadic or semi-nomadic people,
socialism, and . through self-help
the
,
.Not only is the population scattered over
living in the rural areas, and thcy were get-
.
rural mastes will be brought to the same'
ting no significant return for their labor in
large land areas, the transportation system
level of political consciousness as the popu-
in rural areas is very undeveloped. Most
terips of services from the central govern-
lation in urban centers."
villages, where there are villages, have no
ment. The country's overall literacy rate was
.The gover anent anticipated that an added
roads or at least, they had none.before the
about 5 percent, and those who were literate
benefit of the campaign would be a strength-
a major
literacy campaign. Camels are
were literate in English, Arabic, or Italian.
ened national unity that would result from
means of transportation. Somalia's com-
At that time, a decade ago, the Sonfali
the increased contact between urban and
munication system includes short-wave ra-
language had no written form.
rural people. The rural -campaign, to bc
broadcasting capability; there were
dio
Officials debated for several years over
properly carried out, required 20,000
about 67,000 radios in use nationwide in
the choice of an alphabet. Finally, in 1972,
teachers, nearly all orwhom would have to
1974.
the Latin alphabet was chosen, the language
come from urban areas. The only .major
One advantage to the government's cam-
waSput in written form, and Somali became
source of.people for the task was the school
medium of com-
paign was the homogeneity of the popula-
official
the ..country's
ihtermediate and sccondary
system
tion: about 85 percent of the people are
munication. The government, under the
school students and their teachers. The on15i
Hamitic, and almost all are MAislim. The
direction of President Mohammed Siad
way to complete the Campaign within the
nomad's value system is clearly defined.
Barre, decided to stage a two-year mass
scheduled time- was to close thc schooli for a
derived from tradition and the Islamic fait:h.
literacy campaign aimed at irradicating il-
year and send all teachers and students aged
fttodition is transmitted orally, from, father
literacy entirely, using the newly written
16 or older to the rural areas to teach
n, often in the form of poetry, which is
language. The first year of the campaign was
t
literacy classes. This was done.
considered the most important art form.
to be directed at the urban areas, and the
Dancing- alid singing are also favorite
second at the, rural arcas.
Teaching Literacy
Thc urban phase of the campaign,
pastimes. Religious men, or wadaad; plaY a
The teachers lived with rural families and
vital role among the nomads, in treating the
launched in March 173, Was a fairly easy
conducted literacy classes anywhere that
sick, initiating rituals, and teaching. Many
assignment. 'the majority of those already
made sense. In the more settled areas the
Somalis have had their only forMal eduta-
literate in other lariguages lived in the urban
tion in Korapic schools, and students of
people sometimes built special huts for the
It was
areas and already spoke Somali.
heat, they
glasses, but, because of the
therefore easy to teach the new written
Islam often travel amOng the nomad camRs.
generally preferred ,to hold classes outside
Male dominance is deeply woven into the
language to goyernment woikers, teachers,
under the trees. For, the nomadic popula-
turn taught
Somali nomad's lifestyle. Although the for-
and schoolchildren, who in
mal education* system has emphasized
tion, the logical place to conduct classes was
other urban residents. This campaign
near their 'water sources. One way of en.-
education for both men and women, the
reached about 400,000 people.
and particularly
couraging nbmads to attend literacyclasses
nomad population
The rural campaign, however, was by any
was to give water privileges only to those
have had little access to it.
standards no easy task. There was little in-
nomad women
who attended the daily class. The nomads.;
It is a particularly difficult challenge to give
frastructure to use in reaching the nomads,
however, did not come to the wells'eyery
to education
the nomad woman access
and one could never count on reaching the
day. To overcome this problem, the teachers
because her days are so completely taken up
same nomad for very long in the same place.
had to move with the nomads and the
with the chores and duties imposed on her
Somalia, with an area of 637,657 square
_L.--
an idea tha
mobile school was born
by the nomadic lifestyle, and because the
kilometers (246,201 square miles), is main-
later to serve as a model for nomad educa-
men must be persuaded that education for
ly a semi-arid country, mountainous in the
tion Centers.
women is a good thing.
north and low and flat in the soutfil There
The main teaching material used in the
are two Main rivers, both in the southern
campaign was a primer, produced by the Na-
The Rural Development Campaign
region. 'Rainfall is scarce and unrefiable; thc
Adult Education Center (NAEC),
1974, the Rural
Launched in August
tional
wettest areas get about 20 inches of rainfall
to the
with lessons on themes relevant
Development Campaign was thc first phase
annually. Only 13 percent of the land can be
cattle-breeding, overgrazing, hy-
nomad
of the government's strategy for taking basic
cultivated.
giene. Few literacy students-had copies of
services to the rural population. Conceived
In large areas of the country, therefore,
the primer, and even the more settled agri-
first a a literacy campaign, it was expanded
the nomads depend almost entirely on their
cultural'rural people used the primer writ-
to inc ude four 'dimensions: 1) eradication
for
goats, sheep, camels, cattle
animals
ten for the nomads. The teachers were for
of ilUtracy among the rural populations; 2)
stitsistdrice. Animals are a source of meat,
the mosl part untrained and were free to
publjk health improvement; 3) animal
mirk, and butter, and animals or hides are
10