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C H A P T E R 1 Page 5
Linguists define grammar as a set of components; phonetics (the production and
perception of sounds), phonology (how sounds are combined), morphology (the
study of forms, or how elements are combined to create words), syntax (how words
are strung together into sentences), and semantics or meaning. Because all
languages are characterised by these components, a language does not exist
without grammar.
Why do we analyse language?
Teachers analyse language in order to raise their awareness so that they can
anticipate problems and prepare ways to deal with them in class.
The role of grammar in communicative language teaching suggests an uneasy
relationship between two elements: namely, grammar on the one hand, and
communication on the other. Since the acquisition of competence in a second
language is a gradual, developmental process, the teacher is the guide and
model of competence that learners will use. Hence, interpretive skills come first;
acquired through immersion in the language, exposure to excellent models, and
interaction with interesting subject matter. Fluency in oral and written expression
develops gradually, as a consequence of exposure to good models and pleasant
interaction in the second language. Hence, functional language ability would be
acquired only through exposure to interesting texts accompanied by meaningful
interaction in the second language.
Task
Define Grammar.
Grammar is the study and use of rules by which words change their forms and are
combined into sentences.
Language Analysis: Building Blocks (Parts of Speech):
Nouns:
The names of living, non-living things and concepts.
They are classified into several categories.
E.g.: Eve…
Pronouns:
They replace a noun. Hence, they also fall into several categories.
E.g.: She…
Adjectives:
They describe a noun's size, quality, quantity, material, nationality, shape, colour…
etc.
E.g.: Eve, a strong young lady,…
Articles:
Indefinite: A (preceding a consonant)
An (preceding a vowel)[meaning: one]
E.g.: Eve, a strong young lady,…
Definite: The [meaning: the one and only…]
E.g.: Eve, the head of the Sales Department,…
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Verbs:
Action words. They are classified into different tenses.
E.g.: Eve, the head of the Sales Department, punched Adam…
Adverbs:
They describe the quality of the verb (how did it happen?).
E.g.: Eve, the head of the Sales Department, punched Adam hard…
Prepositions:
They describe the time and place. They also combine with verbs in order to form
phrasal verbs, or with nouns and adjectives to form collocations.
E.g.: Eve, the head of the Sales Department, punched Adam hard in the nose at
noon,…
Conjunctions:
Linking words used to combine or merge two or more long sentences into one.
E.g.: Eve, the head of the Sales Department, punched Adam hard in the nose at
noon and he fell unconscious.
Interjections:
Sounds rather than words used to express emotions.
E.g.: Oops! Eve, a strong woman, punched Adam hard in the nose at noon and he
fell unconscious. Ouch!
Types of Nouns:
Common Proper Abstract Collective Compound
Definition A general The name It names an It refers to a It is made up
name for a of a intangible group of of two or
person, a particular idea, people or more words.
place or a person, quality or things. It may be
thing. place, state rather written as
thing or than a one word,
idea. tangible separate
object that words or
can be seen, hyphenated
heard, smelt, words.
tasted or
touched.
Examples man, Adam, Beauty, Team, Aeroplane,
theatre, Symphony strength, family, staff, rain forest,
fruit. Centre, courage. audience, runner-up,
Kellogg's police. mother-in-
Cornflakes. law.
How to form General _____ ______ Same rules The second
plural Rule: add as word only is
"s' common put in plural
Exceptions: nouns form
see NB1
A note on Lower case Always Lower case Lower case Sometimes
punctuation capitalised hyphenated
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Plural Formation Rules:
(cid:61623) If the noun ends in: "s", "x", "o", "z", "ch", or "sh", the plural is formed by adding
the suffix "es" to the singular form.
(cid:61623) If the noun ends in: "f", or "fe", the plural is formed by crossing out the "f", or "fe",
and adding the suffix "ves" to the singular form.
(cid:61623) If the noun ends in: "y" preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed by
crossing out the "y" and adding the suffix "ies" to the singular form.
(cid:61623) Some nouns stay the same in both the singular and plural forms.
(cid:61623) Other irregularities concern change of vowels or adding letters to the singular
form especially when the word is derived from Latin.
Types of Pronouns:
Possessive Possessive
Subject Object Pronouns Pronouns Reflexive
Pronouns Pronouns (followed by a (at the end of a Pronouns
noun) sentence)
I Me My Mine Myself
You You Your Yours Yourself
He Him His His Himself
She Her Her Hers Herself
It It Its Its Itself
We Us Our Ours Ourselves
You You Your Yours Yourselves
They Them Their Theirs Themselves
Order of Adjectives:
No. IN- OPIN- SIZE SHAPE WIDTH PARTICI- AGE COL- ORI- MATE-
TENSI ION/ PLE OUR GIN RIAL
FIER Qual-
The Very Boring Tiny Round Thin Worn An- Dark Western Wooden
first tique
Three Quite Rare Min- Rectan- Thick Tattered Cur- Light Irish Plastic
ute gular rent
A Rather Useful Gi- Hexago- Narrow Underlying Mod- Blue Oriental Woolen
dozen ganti nal ern
c
A Some- Friendl me- Box– Wide Shut Con- Red- Arab Cloth
cou- what y dium Shaped tempor dish
ple of ary
Comparison of Adjectives:
In order to show intensity of the adjective used, the comparative form is used when
comparing two nouns, and the superlative one is used when comparing more than
two nouns according to the following rules:
Mono-Syllabic Adjectives:
Comparative form: Adj. + er + than
Superlative form: The + Adj. + est
Adjectives of Two or More Syllables:
Comparative form: More + Adj. + than
Superlative form: The+ Most + Adj.
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Articles:
Indefinite Articles
/ \
A An
-“A” is used before singular unspecified common nouns beginning with a
consonant letter such as: a glass,a doctor,a boy,a hospital,a hotel.
-“A” is also used before common nouns starting by the sound “you” such as:
a university,a European.
- “A” must also be used before “little” and “few” to determine quantity.
- “An” is used before singular unspecified common nouns beginning with a vowel
(a, e, i, o, u) such as: anegg,anengineer, aneye,anaccountant.
-“An” is also used before singular common nouns beginning with a silent letter
followed by a vowel such as: anhour.
-“A” and “An” are used to mean “per” as in:This car runs at 180km. anhour;
I visit my uncle once/twice/three times…etc. a week/year/month...etc;
It is one pound a kilo.
- “A” and “An” are used in exclamations as in:
What a strong man!
What anugly woman!
What a fast car!
What a big dog!
The Definite Article (The)
It is used before:
1-Specific common nouns:
E.g.: I met an old man yesterday. The old man was riding a bike.
2-Unique objects:
E.g.:The: sun, sky, moon, stars, clouds, earth, North Pole
3-Names of seas, rivers, canals and oceans:
E.g.: The Mediterranean Sea, the Mississippi, the Suez Canal and the Atlantic
Ocean.
4-Names of mountains and hills:
E.g.:The Alps,The Himalayas.
Exceptions: Mount Everest, Mount Rushmore.
5-Names of republics or kingdoms or states:
E.g.:The United States of America, The United Kingdom
(N.B. “The” must not be added before the names of countries except: The Sudan
and The Netherlands. But we do NOT say “The America” for example.)
6-Historical places and works of art:
E.g.:The Pyramids, The Mona Lisa.
7-An adjective that denotes a certain class of people:
E.g.:Thepoor, the rich,the Italians.
8-Nouns that denote different times of the day:
E.g.: In the morning, afternoon, evening.
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9-In the superlative form:
E.g.: Peter is the most sportive boy in the class. John is the tallest boy in the team.
10-Names of musical instruments:
E.g.:The piano, the flute … etc.
11-Family Names:
E.g.:The Smiths, The Bells…etc.
“The” is NEVER used before:
1-Names of lakes:
E.g.:Lake Victoria
2-If the noun “Man” is used in the sense of mankind or the human race in general:
E.g.:Mancan control beasts.
3-Meals: breakfast, lunch, dinner:
E.g.: I like to have breakfastin bed.
4-The following nouns: work, home, bed, prison, school:
E.g.: He went home late.
My dad reads a story in bed every night.
I go to school five days a week.
UNLESS: the above nouns are preceded by an adjective; in which case “the” is
added.
E.g.: She graduated from the German school.
5-Abstract nouns:
E.g.: love, hate, honesty, bravery, freedom, honour…etc.
E.g.:Braveryis a good quality.
Adverbs:
Basically adverbs are formed by adding the suffix "ly" to the adjective. However,
irregularities occur due to spelling rules or special syntactic cases such as the
following:
(cid:61623) If the adjective ends in: "y" preceded by a consonant, the adverb is formed by
crossing out the "y" and adding the suffix "ily" to the adjective.
(cid:61623) If the adjective ends in: "ly", the adverb is formed by using the phrase: "in a …
way" where the ellipses are substituted by the adjective.
(cid:61623) Some adverbs keep the same form as the adjective without any change.
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The Passive Form:
An active sentence starts with the subject and ends with the object, whereas a
passive sentence starts with the subject and may end with the subject.
It is used:
(cid:61623) When the person who does the action (subject) is unknown or unimportant.
(cid:61623) To lay more emphasis on the receiver of the action (object).
AAACCCTTTIIIVVVEEE PPPAAASSSSSSIIIVVVEEE EEEXXXAAAMMMPPPLLLEEE
Present Simple Am/is/are + pp. He repairs cars.
Cars are repaired.
Past Simple Was/were + pp. He repaired the cars.
The cars were repaired.
Present Continuous Am/is/are + being+ He is repairing cars.
(Progressive) pp. Cars are being repaired.
Past Continuous Was/were + being+ He was repairing cars.
(Progressive) pp. Cars were being repaired.
Present Perfect Has + been+ pp. He has repaired the cars.
The cars have been repaired.
Past Perfect Had + been+ pp. He had repaired the cars.
The cars had been repaired.
Future: Will Will + be+pp. He will repair the cars.
The cars will be repaired.
(Be + Going to) Am/is/are+going He is going to repair the cars.
to+be+pp The cars are going to be re-
paired.
Modals: Can/May/ Can/may/must + He must repair the cars.
Must… be + pp. The cars must be
repaired.
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