Table Of ContentOSTEOGENESIS IN A SOFT HYDROGEL
ALP activity was present in cells in the three media, which implied that ALP was expressed also in
control medium, as previously stated for COL1, BSP and OC (Figure 4.4.3‐6 A). In contrast,
dexamethasone‐containing medium seemed to attenuate ALP activity, at least compared to the
control medium, since these two constructs were equally contracted. This down‐regulation is
consistent with the fact that ALP is known to be strongly induced during matrix maturation stages,
but declines during mineralization22,69, which only occurred in glucocorticoid‐treated constructs for
the experiments here reported. In 2D cultures, osteogenic inhibition took place again in osteo+D
medium, while ALP activity was clearly visualized in osteo medium (Figure 4.4.3‐6 B). Moreover, the
same effect was evident on osteopontin (OPN) expression, determined by immunofluorescence
(Figure 4.4.3‐6 B). Thus, this proves that the presence of dexamethasone in 2D cultures not only
inhibits mineralization, as previously described, but the whole osteogenic process.
Effect of contraction disruption on early osteogenesis
Since the osteogenic process described was taking place in a contractile system and mesenchymal
stem cells suffer a process of condensation during bone formation in vivo, it was interesting to
determine whether osteogenesis was associated to construct contraction. For this reason, the
condensation process was disrupted either mechanically or chemically in different ways that are
listed below:
(1) By increasing the stiffness of the gel: Previously in this work, construct condensation was
proven to be hindered as peptide concentration, and thus stiffness, increased (Figure 4.4.1‐
2).
(2) By mechanically attaching the construct to the insert: When loading the mixture of peptide
solution and cell suspension into an insert with dry membrane, the viscous liquid penetrated
through the membrane, which caused the construct to remain attached after medium‐
inducted peptide self‐assembling. In fact, this effect was deliberately avoided in the rest of
experiments by wetting the membrane with medium, prior to gel loading.
(3) By effect of ROCK inhibitor: as previously described in this work, ROCK inhibitor decreased
actin fiber contractility, which in turn obstructed global contraction (Figure 4.4.2‐4).
In the first scenario (1), cells were encapsulated at three concentrations of self‐assembling peptide
(0.15 %, 0.20 % and 0.25 % (w/v)) and osteocalcin (OC) expression was determined at the mRNA level
at 4 and 8 days of culture in control medium. Under these conditions, MC3T3‐E1 cells did not show
any significant change in OC expression depending on matrix stiffness (Figure 4.4.3‐7 A), although
contraction degree was significantly different. Only the aforementioned gene up‐regulation with
time was confirmed again. In independent experiments at 0.15 % and 0.30 % concentration, bone
sialoprotein (BSP) was tested as well by qRTPCR at 8 days, but in this case constructs were not only
cultured in control medium but also in osteo and osteo+D media (Figure 4.4.3‐7 B). Again, the up‐
regulation in distinct stiffness was at the same level in all media, proving that the same result was
obtained in control and under osteogenic inducers. Therefore, although just a 3‐fold difference in
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stiffness was able to dramatically promote morphological changes, it did not significantly affect
osteogenesis, at least up to 8 days.
Consistent with OC and BSP findings, alkaline phosphatase activity was also present on cells cultured
for 12 days in gels at three peptide concentrations (0.15 %, 0.20 % and 0.25 %), as observed in Figure
4.4.3‐7 C. In these pictures the difference in contraction, even after 12 days of culture, was evident,
as well as the lack of cellular network at 0.25 % concentration at higher magnification. At this higher
concentration some few cells remain within the hydrogel, but most of them just form big cellular
agglomerates on the surface of the hydrogel. This is the main reason why experiments were initially
designed at very low hydrogel stiffness and the system was not further characterized at higher
concentrations, as most of the cells were no longer embedded in the hydrogel.
Figure 4.4.3‐7. Osteogenic markers expression at different matrix stiffness. (A) OC was analyzed by qRTPCR
on constructs at 0.15 %, 0.20 % and 0.25 % peptide concentration and cultured in control medium at 4 and 8
days. (B) BSP was analyzed by qRTPCR on 0.15 % and 0.30 % constructs after 8 days of culture in control,
osteo and osteo+D media. Statistics report not significant (ns) differences. (C) ALP activity was assessed by
BCIP/NBT staining in three constructs (0.15 %, 0.20 % and 0.25 % peptide concentration) in control media
(12 days). Bar represents 1 mm for pictures in the first raw and 100 m for the second raw.
In a second attempt to stop contraction (2), some constructs at 0.15 % and 0.30 % peptide
concentration were attached to the membrane of the insert. The typical contracting gel at 0.15 %
concentration was unable to shrink when attached to the membrane (Figure 4.4.3‐8 A, first row),
which proved that the gel was indeed physically attached and that this condition impeded
contraction. Anyhow, cells were observed to elongate and pull, creating some kind of holes in the
structure, since cells were unable to detach the gel. At 0.30 % concentration (Figure 4.4.3‐8 A, second
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row), neither the floating construct nor the attached one could contract, as expected since the matrix
is stiff enough to resist cell traction force. Anyway, in stiffer constructs, cells seemed to elongate
more in attached cultures than in floating ones (not shown) and actually those holes described in the
hydrogel –probably due to cells dragging the matrix‐ were also detected. Indeed, cells in attached
hydrogels are in a very different mechanical environment, compared to free‐floating gels, due to the
extra mechanical tension produced by matrix attachment. This effect was widely studied in collagen
gels by Grinnell’s group regarding wound healing70,71 and by Keely’s group in breast cancer72,73, and it
is not the scope of this work to focus on this issue in detail. Nevertheless, OC show not significant
difference in expression in floating and attached constructs at both matrix stiffness values tested
(Figure 4.4.3‐8 B).
Figure 4.4.3‐8. Osteocalcin expression in disrupted contraction by construct attachment to the membrane. (A) Size
and morphology of floating and attached constructs at 0.15 % and 0.30 % peptide concentration after 4‐day culture
in control medium. (B) Comparison of OC expression in attached and floating gels at 0.15 % and 0.30 % peptide
concentration, cultured for 4 days in control medium. Statistics reported non‐significant (ns) differences.
In another set of experiments (3), contraction was disrupted by the addition of the ROCK inhibitor
Y‐27632 at 1 and 10 μM. Again, after 4‐day culture qRTPCR analysis revealed that the reduction in
cell contractility did not involve a variation of the osteocalcin expression (Figure 4.4.3‐9). Hence, in
the 3D system studied, the osteogenic process, both spontaneous and induced, did not show any
direct relation to construct contraction and biomechanics –at least at early stages of osteogenesis.
Therefore, once in this soft 3D environment, calvaria MC3T3‐E1 cells seemed to engage into a default
pathway of osteogenesis, regardless of cell contractility and network formation. Thus, contraction
forces and osteogenesis seemed to be uncoupled in this model. This conclusion would be, in fact, in
accordance with the expected intramembranous model of bone formation ‐as it happens in skull
bones like calvaria‐, which is not subjected to mechanical loading during development. However, the
stiffness values used in this work (100‐300 Pa) are too low to expect a mechanical induction of
osteogenesis, since other reports described enhanced bone formation at much higher matrix
stiffness values (around 30 and 60 kPa)48,49. However, it is not dismissed that the contraction could be
mechanically stimulating bone formation at long‐term, since construct stiffness was noticeably
increased with time (values have not been determined yet). In agreement with this system, others
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have shown that pre‐osteogenic cells in compliant matrices with contractile behavior displayed
greater osteogenic maturation than in stiffer non‐contractile scaffolds74.
Figure 4.4.3‐9. Osteocalcin expression in disrupted contraction by addition of cell
contractility inhibitor. OC was analyzed by qRTPCR in constructs (0.15 % peptide)
cultured for 4 days in the presence of 1 and 10 M ROCK inhibitor Y‐26732,
compared to control medium. Statistics reported non‐significant (ns) differences.
Intramembranous ossification mechanism: no cartilage‐related markers
Besides bone‐related genes, the expression of some chondrogenic markers was also checked, since
previous experiments with mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) in RAD16‐I hydrogel showed a
default cell commitment to chondrogenesis59. Therefore, the production of collagen type II and
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), major components of cartilage matrix, was evaluated in MC3T3‐E1
constructs. As expected, collagen type II alpha 1 (Col2a1) expression was never detected by qRTPCR,
neither were glycosaminoglycans by toluidine blue staining (Figure 4.4.3‐10). These results ruled out
the possibility of a cartilage‐like intermediate, in agreement with an intramembranous osteogenic
pathway, as it happens during calvaria bone development.
Figure 4.4.3‐10. Glycosaminoglycans staining on
MC3T3‐E1 construct. Toluidine blue staining on a
construct at 0.15 % after 20 days in control medium.
4.4.4. CELL VIABILITY IN THE CONSTRUCTS
One major issue when dealing with tissue engineering products is to ensure cellular viability.
Therefore, viability of MC3T3‐E1 cells within the self‐assembling peptide and along the contraction
process was assessed. Firstly, viability was analyzed on a construct cultured in control medium for a
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long period of time (42 days). Figure 4.4.4‐1 shows its 3D reconstruction from different optical
sections, where most of the cells stained green ‐alive‐ and only few nuclei stained red –dead. Hence,
cells –both on the surface and within the matrix‐ remained mostly viable after encapsulation,
construct condensation and prolonged culture.
Figure 4.4.4‐1. 3D image of cellular viability of a MC3T3‐E1 construct.
The image is a 3D reconstruction from optical sections taken with
Zeiss ApoTome system. The construct (40 l) was cultured in control
medium for 42 days (0.15 % gel).
Moreover, viability was also assessed at other working conditions: in constructs at two different
matrix stiffness (100 and 440 Pa, corresponding to 0.15 % and 0.30 % peptide concentration) and
after culture in the three tested media: control, osteo and osteo+D. Regarding stiffness, higher
material stiffness and consequent restriction of contraction did not seem to increase cellular death
(see Figure 4.4.4‐2, first row). In both cases, only few cells stained red after 19 days of culture in
control medium. Nevertheless, again clear morphological differences were stated. On one hand, cells
in 0.15 % hydrogels easily created a continuous network throughout the whole construct. On the
other hand, in 0.30 % gels, only cells at the perimeter were able to interact and form network while
cells in the center remained as clusters.
Cells cultured in osteo medium showed similar viability to cells in control medium. Hardly any dead
cells were observed at both peptide concentrations, but the stiff hydrogel promoted cellular
aggreates (Figure 4.4.4‐2, second row). Conversely, more dead cells were detected in both peptide
concentrations in the presence of dexamethasone (Figure 4.4.4‐2, third row). In addition, cells in
0.15 % gels were organized differently, since they changed the homogeneous network observed in
control and osteo media for cellular aggregations that created pores around 100 m, which seemed
to more closely resemble bone structure. An increase in cell death in differentiating conditions is not
surprising, since it is actually in agreement with the natural cell death occurring after cellular
specialization and maturation in vivo75. Moreover, apoptosis (programmed cell death) has an
important role in development and morphogenesis and contributes substantially to bone turnover
and regeneration76.
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Figure 4.4.4‐2. Cellular viability at different matrix stiffness and media. Individual optical sections (10X objective) of
constructs stained for viability (live cells stain green and dead cells, red) in 0.15 % and 0.30 % gels. Cells were cultured for
19 days in three different media: control, osteo, and osteo+D. In 0.30 % gels, two images are shown: one from cells in the
periphery and the other from the cells in the center of the construct. White bars correspond to 200 m.
4.4.5. MC3T3‐E1 CONSTRUCTS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF OTHER MEDIUM SUPPLEMENTS
As mentioned earlier, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) also undergo a contraction process similar
to MC3T3E1 cells, once embedded in self‐assembling peptide hydrogel59. In this 3D environment,
MEFs constructs reached a bilateral closed structure, in most of the cases. Besides the cell type, both
experiments differ in the formulation of the culture medium, since MEFs were cultured in 15 %
serum supplemented in some cases with 20 nM PDGF (platelet‐derived growth factor‐BB) to
normalize the variations in serum quality and origin. Precisely, due to the deviations observed with
serum, all the experiments with MC3T3‐E1 cells were always conducted with the same fetal bovine
serum (same batch) heat inactivated from South American origin. In that work with MEFs, those cells
were reported to suffer dedifferentiation into a multipotent mesenchymal progenitor and a default
commitment to chondrogenesis.
Therefore, following this previous work in the group, it was decided to test osteoprogenitor behavior
under the influence of the same supplements as in MEFs cultures. Consequently, MC3T3‐E1 cells
were encapsulated in 0.15 % RAD16‐I peptide and cultured at 10 % and 15 % FBS, with or without
PDGF.
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Effect of serum concentration and PDGF on the contraction pattern
Indeed, when cultured in 15 % FBS and 20 nM PDGF, MC3T3‐E1 cells modified their contraction
pattern and achieved a final closed bilateral morphology, as MEFs did (Figure 4.4.5‐1). Sometimes,
this shape could be also observed in 10 % FBS and PDGF, but not in all cases. In the absence of PDGF,
the typical round structure with the perimetric prominence was always obtained, regardless of the
serum concentration. However, under the combination of 15 % FBS and PDGF, the contraction
process seemed to occur in general faster than in 10 % FBS. These observations indicate that
additional supplements change the contraction pattern to which MC3T3‐E1 cells are subjected. PDGF
is actually involved in many signaling pathways. It has been reported to stimulate migration and
proliferation in many cells and in MC3T3‐E1 cell line77, in particular. In 3D cultures of human
fibroblasts ‐encapsulated in collagen type I gels‐, PDGF was reported to have a promigratory effect,
while serum had a procontractile effect78. Hence, it is not surprising that PDGF and serum ‐containing
many other growth factors‐ have a critical role in construct morphogenesis.
Figure 4.4.5‐1. Final construct morphology depending on FBS
concentration and PDGF addition. MC3T3‐E1 cells in 0.15 % peptide
were cultured in 10 % and 15 % FBS in the presence or absence of
PDGF. Final morphology is depicted after 20 days of culture.
Evaluation of a cartilage intermediate in MC3T3‐E1 cultures in new medium conditions
The hypothesis to explain spontaneous chondrogenesis in MEFs cultures was that lower oxygen
concentration might exist in the inner of the closed construct. New results in the group show that
chondrogenesis do not longer take place in smaller constructs (40 and 20 l, compared to the regular
80 l), where oxygen diffusion might not be an issue any more79. Consequently, it was decided to
repeat glycosaminoglycans staining on MC3T3‐E1 to rule out the possibility that chondrogenic
differentiation could be taking place in the inner part of the construct. Figure 4.4.5‐2 A depicts
negative glycosaminoglycan staining for MC3T3‐E1 at any media, even in the closed structures,
where low oxygen concentrations might be possible. At the right (Figure 4.4.5‐2 B), positive staining
for MEFs is shown in the paraxial areas. Dissection was always performed to ensure typical blue‐
purple stain of the matrix, since it might not be evident on the whole construct. Therefore, in spite of
imitating the environment for spontaneous chondrogenic commitment in MEFs, MC3T3‐E1
constructs did never show any sign of a cartilage intermediate, indicating that these cells do not
change their osteogenic commitment.
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Figure 4.4.5‐2. Glycosaminoglycans staining on MC3T3‐E1 constructs depending on the media
supplements. Toluidine blue staining on (A) MC3T3‐E1 constructs after 20 days in different media (10 %
and 15 % FBS, ‐/+ PDGF) and (B) MEFs construct after 15 days culture in 15 % FBS and 20 nM PDGF.
Evaluation of spontaneous osteogenic markers expression in 15 % serum and PDGF
Some analyses were performed on MC3T3‐E1 encapsulations cultured in 15 % FBS and PDGF to
determine if the new medium was changing the expression profile of the constructs. On the contrary,
spontaneous expression of bone‐related markers was taking place without the addition of osteogenic
inducers (ascorbic acid, ‐glycerophosphate and dexamethasone), as it happened in control medium
(10 % FBS). Figure 4.4.5‐3 A shows that osteocalcin expression was up‐regulated at 4 days of culture,
even to a greater extent than in control medium, although changes were not significant. Moreover,
alkaline phosphatase staining and osteopontin immunofluorescence for 16‐days constructs were
positive. On the other hand, von Kossa staining for mineralization was negative for the same samples
(Figure 4.4.5‐3 B). These results suggest that no important differences in terms of osteogenic
differentiation took place due to the increase of serum concentration and the addition of PDGF, at
least in the absence of osteogenic inducers.
Figure 4.4.5‐3. Expression of osteogenic markers in MC3T3E1 constructs cultured in 15 % FBS and PDGF. (A) Alkaline
phosphatase staining, von Kossa staining and osteopontin immunofluorescence (primary and secondary antibody,
on the left, and control with only secondary antibody, on the right). Stainings were performed in construct slices. (B)
Osteocalcin expression analyzed by qRTPCR in 4‐day constructs cultured in 10 % FBS and 15 % FBS plus PDGF.
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The differentiation of those 3D cultures in osteogenic media (osteo and osteo+D) was also assessed
in parallel experiments to the ones conducted in 10 % FBS, as described in the previous sections. The
control medium was formulated with 15 % FBS and 20 nM PDGF, but no modification was made in
osteogenic media (formulated in 10 % FBS and no PDGF). Therefore, the only difference for the
osteogenic cultures was that the first 4 days they were cultured in the new medium. Hence, very
similar results were expected compared to the previous ones, since serum and PDGF did not seem to
affect spontaneous osteogenesis.
Surprisingly, at 24 days of culture, no mineralization was observed in the presence of dexamethasone
(Figure 4.4.5‐4 A), contrary to the previous experiments, where a fully mineralized matrix was always
obtained at that time. The only sign of positive von Kossa staining was in osteo medium, where the
compact cell layer on the surface started mineralizing in a 2D fashion (shown in further detail in
Figure 4.4.5‐4 B). Repetitions of the same experiment reported the same results. Interestingly, a
short treatment of the constructs with PDGF and 15 % FBS dramatically altered the mineralization
pattern. Studies report that treatment with PDGF showed inhibited mineralization in cultures of
mesenchymal stem cells80, pre‐osteogenic MC3T3‐E1 cells and pre‐osteocytic MLO‐A5 cells81.
Nonetheless, for a long time PDGF was known to be involved in bone formation and a recent report
by Caplan et al. ascribes a crucial role in bone healing to PDGF82. That work highlights PDGF functions
in the recruitment of osteoprogenitor cells at a specific site, the induction of their efficient
multiplication, the modulation of their responsiveness to osteoblastic differentiation factors and the
stabilization of newly formed blood vessels. Therefore, the addition of PDGF into the medium
renders a very complex scenario that would require more research to elucidate the present results.
However, the system here presented seems to be capable to respond to PDGF stimuli and to
mineralize in condition that might be more biomimetic, since dexamethasone is not required.
Figure 4.4.5‐4. Effect of pre‐culture in 15 % FBS and PDGF on mineralization. MC3T3‐E1 constructs were cultured
for 4 days in medium containing 15 % FBS and PDGF and then changed to osteo and osteo+D. (A) von Kossa
staining at 16 and 24 days. (B) Detail of the mineralized area of the construct in osteo medium at 24 days.
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4.5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
During embryonic development of bone, condensation of progenitor cells is considered a
fundamental step, both in intramembranous and endochondral mechanisms, because it promotes
increased cellular contacts and cell‐to‐cell communication, which are critical in tissue formation19. At
the moment, many osteogenic models in hydrogels, such as the commonly used PEG and alginates,
usually constrain cells within the matrix impeding the aforementioned cellular connections48‐50,53.
Hence, as an alternative, we devised a three‐dimensional osteogenic model, which could somehow
recapitulate the first steps of bone formation. To this purpose, a soft nanofiber hydrogel made of
self‐assembling peptides was used as scaffold material. Under the appropriate biomechanical
conditions ‐that is at initial matrix stiffness around 100 Pa‐, MC3T3‐E1 cells are able to elongate,
migrate and interact to each other creating a rich interconnected cell‐cell network within the first
days of culture.
The cellular contractile forces induce the condensation of the cells and extracellular matrix
components, thereby increasing the local concentration of signaling molecules. Moreover, hydrogel
also suffers a spontaneous contraction, suggesting that the intrinsic capacity of the biomaterial to
contract may also contribute to the process here described. This progression may be interesting for
tissue engineering, since the system spontaneously evolves from a soft fragile hydrogel to a dense
cohesive structure. This process is possible by the effect of a cellular network undergoing
condensation. When cells were encapsulated into slightly stiffer gels, cells typically formed
aggregates and the contraction was inhibited, which finally rendered less stiff and non‐homogeneous
constructs. For this reason, compliant unrestrictive and contractile hydrogels might certainly be good
candidates to generate tissue‐like constructs.
Interestingly, osteoprogenitor cells within this self‐assembling peptide gel have been shown to
spontaneously up‐regulate the expression of bone‐related genes in the absence of any osteogenic
inducer. Moreover, those up‐regulations reached the expression levels in constructs cultured in
osteogenic medium (with ascorbic acid and beta‐glycerophosphate). Therefore, the 3D system may
be osteoinductive by itself, due to the increased cell‐cell contacts in a 3D configuration, the rise in
stiffness over time or both. At the moment of writing this thesis, the stiffness values were not
quantified yet, since it is rather complex due to the non‐defined geometry and the small size of the
constructs. Besides the osteoinductive capacity of the system, a more potent inducer such as
dexamethasone was required to acquire a final osteogenic phenotype, typically characterized by
matrix mineralization. Glucocorticoid‐induced osteogenesis is widely used in many protocols, but it
alters collagen type I and osteocalcin expression. Hence, for a more biomimetic bone formation, it
would be interesting to try replacing dexamethasone with other osteogenic inducer (i.e.
1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3). The response to inductive factors evidenced the different behavior of
MC3T3‐E1 cells in 2D and 3D systems, since cells in self‐assembling peptide seem to lose certain
132
Description:inhibits mineralization, as previously described, but the whole osteogenic
process. hydrogel scaffold modulus on osteoblast differentiation and
mineralization .. were purchased from Promocell (cat# C-12302) and another
batch (CD90+)