12-anderson-abiding salience

16 Pages·2008·2.47 MB·English

by  Conference Room User

CAROLYN ANDERSON
The Abiding Salience of the Local
in a Global Age
The Case of Hawaiian History
On January 27, 1997, in his introduction
of Hawaii’s Last Queen to a national PBS
audience, historian David McCullough, host
of The American Experience, labeled the 1893
overthrow of the hereditary monarchy of
Hawai`i as “an unfamiliar story to most
Americans today.”1 Then McCullough
acknowledged another audience not only
familiar with, but invested in, this story:
“In Hawai`i, however, the subject is anything
but old hat and interpretations of what ac-
tually happened differ sharply, depending
on who’s telling the story.” McCullough
recognized—but located elsewhere— the pro- Act of War: The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Nation, 1993
duction of history as an essentially political Hawai`i all of which share a focus on 1890s
project; he linked an environment of contesta- Hawai`i. I follow public historians who
tion to local politics and familiarity with “the recognize the signifi cance of the local in the
story.” His allusion to Hawai`i recognizes the creation of public memory and of Cultural
situated nature of public memory, of the im- Studies scholars who emphasize the impor-
portance of not only who’s telling the story, tance of the formation, the dissemination, and
but who’s hearing it, and where. the use of cultural products.3 I begin with an
Inspired by Benedict Anderson’s seminal assumption that contexts, particulars of pro-
work on imagined communities, scholars duction, and specifi c uses combine to shape
across disciplines have rediscovered the understandings of media texts. I also begin
centrality of place as site of memory and with Michael Roth’s penetrating questions:
desire and locus of identity formation in a “What is the point of having a past, and why
postmodern world characterized by intense try to recollect it? What desires are satisfi ed
and often disorienting fl ux.2 Although the na- by this recollection?”4 Two crucial fl ashpoints
tion-state, or nation-ness to follow Anderson, in Hawaiian history—the overthrow of Queen
remains the central ideational construct, the Lili`uokalani and the Hawaiian nation in 1893
local and the global have become increasingly and the U.S. annexation of Hawai`i in 1898—
salient in the imagining and materialization function as symbols of, and necessity for, a
of communities. This essay considers how growing movement for native sovereignty in
historical stories appeal to “imagined com- Hawai`i, a movement that deeply complicates
munities” within local, national, and global the concept of nationhood. Where stories of
formations through an examination of Ha- the overthrow and annexation fit in a Ha-
waii’s Last Queen and fi ve productions from waiian centennial account, in a discourse of
Oceania in the Age of Global Media 83
Peter Britos, editor, Special Issue of Spectator 23:1 (Spring 2003) 83-98.
Hawaiian sovereignty, in an American narra-
tive of expansionism and treatment of native
peoples, in geopolitical struggles for inde-
pendence or in global corporate marketing
schemes are among the questions this essay
addresses.
The National Community: Hawaii’s
Last Queen for The American
Experience (1997)
In the 1980s and 1990s, The American Expe-
rience, produced at WGBH in Boston, was
the only regularly scheduled prime-time
television historical documentary series in Queen Lili`uokalani, circa 1893
the United States. It is arguably the most backs up. I was an outsider getting national
influential series and certainly the most funds to make a film about their story…I
acclaimed. Created in 1987 by the late Peter had to gain their trust and I did that by do-
McGee, the series takes an aggressive stance ing my homework.”7 That homework was
in (re-)organizing the discourse of national partially assigned by the academic advisors
memory, and in presenting itself as sensitive Ducat chose: Davianna Pomaika`i McGregor
to the multicultural diversity contained with- (University of Hawai`i, Manoa) and Ten-
in what is nonetheless a metanarrative labeled nant McWilliams (University of Alabama,
“the American experience.” Birmingham). The American Experience urges
In 1991, with an eye on the 1993 centennial producers to employ both a specialist and
of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, generalist, and to consult them at all stages of
independent producer Vivian Ducat submit- the process. McGregor became an important
ted a proposal to The American Experience for local link. Ducat struggled with the expecta-
a project that would consider the overthrow tions and suspicions of a community which
as a factor in the debates in America around has often been misrepresented and whose
“what it meant to be imperial.”5 Ducat met “judgment [she] felt on [her] shoulders the
with (then) executive producer Judy Crichton entire time” and, simultaneously, her contrac-
and senior producer Margaret Drain, who tual obligations to produce a fi lm that would
expressed financial concerns and encour- be understandable and interesting to “people
aged Ducat to seek additional funding, which in Nebraska, and the people in Miami and the
she did, unsuccessfully. Several years later people in Seattle and the people on farms and
Crichton indicated renewed interest in “the people who live in big cities.” 8
Hawaiian idea.” She cautioned that The Ameri- Ducat’s solution to this dilemma is a bio-
can Experience thinks in terms of characters an graphical piece deeply admiring of the last
audience could relate to, and suggested that Hawaiian queen. McCullough introduces
the story be told through the life of the queen. Lili`uokalani’s story as part of the drama of
A start-up time of May 1995 was set. turn-of-the-century American expansionism.
The American Experience front office Nevertheless, Ducat’s emphasis is on Hawai-
encouraged Ducat to select a native Hawai- ian loss, rather than American conquest, on
ian associate producer (Nicole Ebeo). On her Hawaiian isolation, rather than American
fi rst scouting trip to Hawai`i and later when intervention. Hawaii’s Last Queen begins
she returned to fi lm, Ducat’s association with with a prologue that swiftly accomplishes
a well-known, well-funded national series several narrative and conceptual moves. The
operated as both access and obstacle. 6 Ducat narrator opens with, “Just a century ago,
described the situation: “People had their there was an isolated kingdom…a beloved
ANDERSON
The narrator provides a telling context: “Lead-
ing the opposition was a young, hot-headed
lawyer and journalist named Lorrin Thurston.
He formed a secret society of white business-
men.” Twigg-Smith describes Kalakaua [who
preceded Lili`uokalani on the throne] as a
man aching for absolute power. He then of-
fers these motives: “He [Thurston] wanted,
as did the other members of that group, to do
what the colonists had done in 1776, which
was to throw off the yoke of monarchy and
take on the civil rights and other things of a
democracy. And they believed that was in the
best interests of the Hawaiians and I believe
so, too.” Twigg-Smith invocation of American
Act of War: The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Nation, 1993
democracy is clearly an attempt to seize the
moral high ground as heir to and apologist for
queen…removed from her throne... It was a
his grandfather’s actions. Twigg-Smith’s po-
great loss to her people.” An elderly Hawai-
sition—one that dominated written history for
ian woman, Thelma Bugbee, says, “If you can
most of the twentieth century—seems includ-
imagine something within your own culture
ed as a gesture toward “objectivity,” which is
that is tremendously important to you . . . to-
a goal of The American Experience, according to
tally ripped out and gone. If you can imagine
Executive Producer Margaret Drain.
yourself relating to something like that, that’s
By personal preference and following se-
what we went through.” The narrator men-
ries guidelines, Ducat eschewed historical
tions Lili`uokalani’s background and training.
re-enactments, but she employed a moving
Aaron Mahi, Conductor, Royal Hawaiian
camera perspective through various histori-
Band, comments, “Lili`u…knew the values of
cal locations (which The American Experience
both sides. Knew the inevitable of what was
encourages). In arranging a location shoot,
going to happen to Hawaii.”
Ducat encountered a diffi culty that illustrates
This prologue promises a story of a
the resonance of history in contemporary
great woman, whose life was filled with
Hawai`i: owners of Victorian homes were
accomplishment, drama, and intrigue. A
unwilling to have their residences photo-
sympathetic local elder invites an audience of
graphed as the meeting place where the
presumed outsiders to “relate to” a wrench-
overthrow was planned. They presumed their
ing loss. A respected member of the Hawaiian
homes would be recognizable and mark them
community refers to the last queen familiarly
as sympathetic to the overthrow. Ducat did
while describing “what happened to Hawai`i”
not need to fi nd local actors willing to express
as “inevitable.” The rest of the documentary
unpopular opinions, for she shunned the now
elaborates on a theme of tragic inevitability.
common style of voicing historical sources.
The off-screen narrator (Anna Deavere Smith)
Lili`uokalani is quoted on eleven occasions,
and nine on-screen storytellers collaborate,
but the quotations are presented as quotations.
with one notable exception, to present the
This strategy simultaneously draws listeners
biography of an honorable and wise leader,
into Lili`uokalani`s thoughts, yet maintains a
whose commitment to peace was used against
sense of historical distance.
her and her people in an immoral and illegal
The biography builds to the climax of
overthrow, orchestrated by greedy business-
the Queen’s abdication, then moves swiftly
men. Strongly opposing this interpretation
to annexation. The last on-camera speaker
is Honolulu newspaper publisher Thurston
recalls the first in displaying the emotional
Twigg-Smith, grandson of Lorrin Thurston.
Oceania in the Age of Global Media 85
THE ABIDING SALIENCE OF THE LOCAL IN A GLOBAL AGE
Queen Lili`uokalani, circa 1881 Queen Lili`uokalani, circa 1893
dimensions of public memory. Malcolm Naea Hawai`i International Film Festival in
Chun has spoken before, with conviction and Honolulu in October 1996 with a special
from a [Hawaiian] nationalist perspective, “Governor’s screening,” after which Ducat
but with restraint. In his final appearance, spoke briefly. Local reviews and responses
Chun describes the lowering of the Hawai- were generally favorable, some strongly so;
ian flag and the insult of its being cut into others were tempered in their praise, with two
small ribbons, then given to the sons and reoccurring complaints: the absence of discus-
daughters of missionary families as “tokens sion of the on-going sovereignty movement
of remembrance…of their great victory over and the mispronunciation of Hawaiian words
the Hawaiian kingdom and the end of the by the narrator. Since The American Experience
tyranny of the Hawaiian monarchy.” While policy is to focus only on the past, Ducat had
speaking, Chun lowers his eyes, and his voice followed the series template. The second criti-
cracks; then, as he concludes, he suddenly cism struck a nerve, although here, too, Ducat
looks up in sadness and proud resolution. had followed the series practice of utilizing
The narrator briefly recalls Lili`uokalani’s a “box office” narrator. After considering
last years, as an American citizen, and her local performers, Ducat chose Anna Deavere
death. The fi lm ends with off-screen chant- Smith, because of her vocal skills and her
ing, images of the Hawaiian shore, and these national reputation. Audiotapes of all Hawai-
words: “For weeks after her funeral, strange ian words in the narration were prepared by
events were recorded in the islands. Volcanoes a Hawaiian speaker for Smith’s tutoring. Yet
erupted and the seas turned an odd hue, from sometimes good intentions, hard work, and
the sudden appearance of a multitude of red professional skill are not enough. Others from
fi sh. It was as if the elements recognized that the resident community found quite different
the kingdom was no more.” faults: Thurston Twigg-Smith considered the
Hawaii’s Last Queen premiered at the documentary “biased and one-sided,” distort-
86 SPRING 2003
ANDERSON
ing “major elements of Hawaiian history”; Experience programmed a national re-broad-
a review from “The MAN” posted this warn- cast of Hawaii’s Last Queen and cleared the
ing: “Viewers should look with a critical eye documentary for foreign broadcast and
to see how much of this program is truth and satellite transmission world-wide. The docu-
how much is misleading propaganda de- mentary is marketed vigorously through PBS
signed to infl uence local politics.”9 video catalogs in three formats. PBS handles
In January 1997, PBS broadcast Hawaii’s video sales, with the series receiving 50% of
Last Queen nationwide. Almost seven million the profi ts. In 2003, PBS continued to maintain
viewers—more than typical for the series and a web site on Hawaii’s Last Queen, providing
far more than American Experience executives a transcript, bibliography, information on
anticipated—saw the documentary. Original Lili`uokalani’s 160 musical compositions
reviews responded positively to the fresh- (with Aloha `Oe performed by The Galliard
ness of an unfamiliar historical tale. With an String Quartet in RealAudio), a quiz on
array of headlines, hundreds of newspapers Hawai`i, and a teacher’s guide on “cultural
ran a complimentary Associated Press piece values, expansionism, politics, racism, exploi-
written by Honolulu-based Ron Staton that tation.”11
demarcates audience expectations: “Beyond
The Local Hawaiian Community:
Hawai`i, Queen Lili`uokalani, the islands’
Telling the Story of the Overthrow
last monarch, probably is best known as the
of 1893
composer of Aloha `Oe. But to native Hawai-
ians, Lili`uokalani is the revered symbol of For a decade before the 1997 broadcast of
their loss of sovereignty.” Staton later quotes Hawaii’s Last Queen to a nation-wide audi-
Ducat as saying, “This is not a film about ence, producers in Hawai`i, operating from
sovereignty. I tried to stay out of local a variety of funding bases and political agen-
politics.”10 In March 1998, The American das, had told the story of Queen Lili`uokalani
and the overthrow of 1893.
National Guard of the Provisional Government of Hawai`i in front of ‘Iolani Palace, 1893
Oceania in the Age of Global Media 87
THE ABIDING SALIENCE OF THE LOCAL IN A GLOBAL AGE
1. Hawai`i Public Television in direct address. Here juxtaposition drives
Production: Hawaiians (1987) the editing strategy whereby the words of a
historical person will be challenged by the
Like many public television stations, KHET
comments that follow, sometimes from anoth-
in Honolulu carries a small permanent staff,
er “historical person,” at other times from a
and often recruits from the local production
contemporary expert, thereby creating a rheto-
community for specific projects. That was
ric of rebuttal against the words and actions of
the case for an ambitious three-part history
the colonizers and the once-standard histories
of Hawai`i produced by the Hawai`i Public
of Hawai`i. This representational style drives
Broadcasting Authority (with corporate back-
the first two acts; then, when the chronicle
ing from Bank of Hawai`i) in 1987. Hawaiians
reaches the 1870s the re-enactments disappear,
was produced by Lynn Waters of the KHET
with one notable exception: Luliu`okalani, the
staff and directed by Roland Yamamoto. By
last monarch, directly addresses the camera
the mid-1980s, the Islands had experienced
three times. These appearances—ghostly, and
a full decade of “Hawaiian Renaissance,” a
visually jarring—have an intriguing perfor-
period of renewed interest in and admira-
mative quality. Although her comments range
tion for Hawaiian culture. Hawaiians taps
from 1887 to 1893, her dress and physical ap-
and extends such interest and admiration in
pearance do not change. The result suggests
a sweeping, three-hour series, promoted as
memory embodied; her personal memory
“the definitive historical account of the na-
and also a public memory. First, she describes
tive people of the most famous islands in the
her 1887 return to Hawai`i from England and
world.”
her subsequent realization of “a conspiracy
Part Two, Innocence Betrayed, presents the
against the peace of the Hawaiian kingdom”;
1800s as a century of loss, dramatized as a
then, she recounts the circumstances by which
tragedy in three acts, as the losses accumulate
she was “compelled to take the oath to the
and deepen: first, of a uniquely Hawaiian
Constitution which had led to the death of
culture, then, of the people’s land, and, fi nally,
[her] brother.” Finally, she reads the letter in
of the Hawaiian kingdom. A typical off-screen
which, under protest, and to avoid bloodshed,
narrator guides understandings of the visual
with the hope of reinstatement by the United
material, displayed as evidence. Also typical-
States government, she yielded her authority
ly, a chain of “experts” appear and reappear,
as the constitutional sovereign of the Hawai-
their comments linked, sometimes one to
ian Islands.
another, but more commonly to a narration
The narrator’s omniscient voice resumes,
presented as conclusive. All nine commenta-
providing more historical information paired
tors are Island residents; most of them are
with early twentieth-century moving images.
Hawaiian.12 They selected their own self-
The narrator sadly concludes:
labels. Kekuni Blaisdell, who has the most
speaking turns, presents himself as “M.D., Lili`uokalani, a singular woman, on whom the
Citizen of the Hawaiian Nation.” Many locals tragedy of the Hawaiian race fell, lived 77 years.
would recognize Blaisdell, a founder of Ka On her death in 1917, 139 years after the arrival
of Cook, fewer than 40,000 Hawaiians survived.
Pakaukau, a coalition of sovereignty groups,
The people were gone; the heroes were gone; the
and a University of Hawai`i Medical School
religion was gone; the land was gone; the spoken
professor instrumental in establishing clin-
history of 2,000 years was gone; and, with her
ics for Hawaiians. For all viewers, Blaisdell
passing, the last Hawaiian hope was gone, too.
introduces a subtext of political action with
According to historical researcher and co-
his forceful self-description.
writer, Ellen Pelissero, a central goal of the
What is atypical stylistically in Innocence
series was to educate young Hawaiians and
Betrayed is the use of actors impersonating
to make them proud of their history. The
historical personages, literary characters and
producers wanted Hawaiians “to definitely
historical types, quoting from written sources
88 SPRING 2003
ANDERSON
be from the Hawaiian perspective.”13 Conse- For reasons that ranged from the stylistic (the
quently, Waters, Yamamoto and Pelissero—all one-person format was too constrictive), to the
from Hawai`i, but not Native Hawaiian—ap- personal (Sai and the playwright had a falling
proached their task with considerable out), to the scholarly (the screenwriter found
trepidation and consultation. Many ap- the earlier play “grossly inaccurate”), Kukui
plauded their work. Pelissero tells of a young Foundation decided to produce an original
Hawaiian man who, after watching the televi- docudrama with a large cast.
sion series, told Yamamoto “My aunties and To create dramatic situations and dialogue
my grandmother told me I should be proud for Betrayal, Pelissero consulted the Queen’s
I’m Hawaiian, but until last night, I didn’t autobiography and diaries and the published
know why.” Some challenged the limits of memoirs of Lorrin Thurston and Sanford
empathy, criticizing the series for not having Dole who became central antagonists in the
been written by a Hawaiian, or a person fl uent docudrama. There were limits to the elasticity
in the Hawaiian language.14 of this technique; consequently, dialogue and
The producers of Hawaiians expected to composite characters were created. To add
broadcast (and rebroadcast) only in the Is- action, location shooting, and some levity, a
lands, but the series has enjoyed a far wider sub-plot about the failed counter-revolution of
reach over a considerably longer period of 1895 was added and local comedy writer Tre-
time than anticipated. KHET broadcasts the maine Tamyose joined Pelissero as co-writer
three-part series annually and public televi- and Joy Chong as co-director.
sion stations on the continent continue to A $350,000 grant for the production of
rebroadcast it. Video rental copies are avail- Betrayal was secured from the Hawai`i Leg-
able at commercial outlets in the Islands; the islature in 1991, but a series of complications
series is sold at national chain stores. The caused delays. Nevertheless, the production
Mountain Apple Company, owned by local moved ahead. Kukui Foundation negotiated
composer-performer Jon de Mello distributes generous agreements with KHET for its sound
the series. Because de Mello had a distribution stages and the services of its union crew; local
system, Hawaiians has a commercial life that actors worked for scale. The shooting sched-
is rare, but probably not unique, for a local ule was tight and began with a traditional
public television series. Frequent classroom Hawaiian blessing of the set. The state leg-
use and cable casting in the Islands extend the islature appropriated a $100,000 completion
series’ reach and credibility. grant and several local foundations provided
fi nancial support for post-production costs.
2. Hawai`i Public Television
What had been a minority historical perspec-
Co-Production: Betrayal (1993)
tive in the Islands regarding the overthrow
Even before the series Hawaiians was only several years before was becoming a
produced, Marlene Sai, who portrays mainstream local perspective.
Lili`uokalani, was linked in the local imagina- Betrayal was fi nished by summer of 1992, but
tion with the Queen. In the 1960s, Sai recorded Kuki and KHET decided to delay broadcast
some of Lili`uokalani’s compositions. She until January 1993 to position the docudrama
appeared as the Queen in Hear Me, Oh My as an important part of the observance of the
People, a one-person play written by Don centennial of the overthrow. According to
Berrigan presented in Hawai`i in 1984 and in Pelissero, Kukui imagined a local audience of
Washington, D.C. in 1987, adding momentum three sub-groups: 1) native Hawaiians, eager
to a growing interest in Hawaiian history. In to know “their own” history; 2) all students in
1988 the recently elected (and fi rst native Ha- the state (presumably incorrectly taught that
waiian) governor, John Waihe`e, encouraged Hawaiians had supported annexation); and 3)
Sai to fi lm her performance.15 With this goal the local non-Hawaiian audience, especially
in mind, Sai formed the Kukui Foundation. the kama`aina haole (white, long-time resident)
Oceania in the Age of Global Media 89
THE ABIDING SALIENCE OF THE LOCAL IN A GLOBAL AGE
Marlene Sai as Lili`uokalani in Betrayal, 1993
culture who “have their view of history” showed the docudrama in 1993 and later. The
(which needs correcting). Certainly Betrayal western region of public stations awarded
takes the historical view that the Queen was Marlene Sai an honorable mention for her
betrayed and her subjects were wronged, but memorable performance. Betrayal is not dis-
the docudrama ends in 1917 on an optimistic tributed commercially, but like Hawaiians,
note regarding the possibilities for American it moved easily into the state educational
justice: Lili`uokalani tells her loyal assistant system. In “The Making of Betrayal,” Sai
that she has fl own the American fl ag, an un- describes the docudrama as the most
expected act provoked by her wish to honor ambitious local television production ever
the “Hawaiian boys” who died representing mounted in Hawai`i, and one that employed
America in World War I. She speaks with “99% local people.” In this way, Betrayal
hope, speculating that since Hawaiians have functioned as creative outlet and training
the vote, they may “be able to vote our lands ground for the production of local history.
back.” In contrast to her male friend who can-
3. Hawai`i Independent Production:
not, a feminist Lili`uokalani can imagine that
Act of War: The Overthrow of the
women, too, will some day vote in America.
Hawaiian Nation (1993)
Since Kukui Foundation had been turned
down, quite unequivocally, for funding from Na Maka o ka `Aina (Eyes of the Land) is
national organizations, there was little ex- a two-person video production company
pectation of broadcast outside the Islands. established and operated by Puhipau and
However, once Betrayal was completed, Ku- Joan Lander.16 Puhipau (also known as
kui successfully negotiated with the American Abraham Ahmad, Jr.) was born of a Hawaiian
Program Service of PBS. Many PBS stations mother and Palestinian father and has lived
90 SPRING 2003
ANDERSON
Joan Lander and Puhipau during production.
in the Islands most of his life; Lander came to for a documentary on the overthrow to the
Hawai`i in 1970. In 1980 Puhipau and Lander recently formed Independent Television Ser-
formed a political, personal, and professional vice (ITVS). 17 Their $290,000 proposal was
alliance. Since 1981 Na Maka o ka `Aina has approved; later they received $20,000 from
produced more than one hundred videos. the Native American Public Broadcasting
In some respects, Na Maka operates as guer- Consortium. For the fi rst time, Na Maka had
rilla television, but Na Maka’s crucial links an operating budget that allowed produc-
to state and federal support mark it as a suc- tion fl exibility and the opportunity to repay a
cessful grassroots company with considerable decade of favors. Also for the first time,
influence in its own community and an they had a contractual obligation to create a
impressive reach beyond it. documentary for a national audience.
Made with extremely modest budgets, Act of War was a joint project, with Uni-
sometimes in Hawaiian, and often supported versity of Hawai`i Professors Haunani-Kay
by the Hawai`i Department of Education, Na Trask and Lilikala Kame`eleihiwa control-
Maka productions were regularly screened on ling the script and Puhipau and Lander
public access channels throughout the 1980s. making production decisions. The documen-
In 1991, realizing that the centennial of the tary opens with a bold prologue of striking
overthrow was approaching, and provoked contrasts: a female narrator begins a Hawai-
by learning that a non-Hawaiian had plans ian creation legend; her voice and that story
(which never materialized) for a historical of idyllic island life are ruptured by images
film, Na Maka and colleagues decided they and synchronized sound from news footage
had “better do one that has the Hawaiians’ of protests. Images of Hawaiian land and
point of view.” They submitted a proposal sea and Hawaiian activism are juxtaposed
Oceania in the Age of Global Media 91
THE ABIDING SALIENCE OF THE LOCAL IN A GLOBAL AGE
with the song “Blue Hawaii.” This musical dicted it would be important to Hawaiians
sign of Hollywood Hawai`ithen pairs with and Osorio thinks it has been.18
visuals of tourism and (sub)urban sprawl. J. Kehaulani Kauanui argues that Act of War
Under footage of a march, the narrator “recreates an indigenous genealogy…and of-
summarizes Hawaiian history and announces fers a new way [for Hawaiians] to make sense
a community perspective: of the loss.”19 But the producers also had an
obligation to make Act of War accessible to a
We are the Hawaiian people. These islands have
broad audience, so the hour-long documenta-
always been our home. We were sovereign over
this land before there was an England, long be- ry is packed with details of Hawaiian history.
fore there was a United States. By the nineteenth Periods are punctuated with grim statistics of
century, our independent nation was recognized catastrophic declines in the native Hawaiian
by the dominant powers of the world. And in population. More than 100 quotations are
1893, in an act of war, in an armed invasion, and incorporated into the audio track. Authors’
in violation of international law, our nation was
names (or publications) and dates appear
taken. And we have been compelled, against our
on screen, but the historical figures are not
right to self-determination, to become United
“enacted.” Instead, drawings, archival photo-
States citizens.
graphs, political cartoons, and contemporary
The news footage continues; a woman in
photography of historic locations present a
traditional Hawaiian clothing tells a cheer-
visual equivalent of the historicity of the quo-
ing crowd: “We are not American. We are
tations. The commentators extend, analyze,
not American. We are not American. We will
and sometimes contradict these fragments of
die as Hawaiians. We will never be Ameri-
a historical record that is presented as often
can.” Cut to title: Act of War: The Overthrow of
untrustworthy or incomplete.
the Hawaiian Nation.
Approximately a third of the documen-
Most viewers from Hawai`i would recog-
tary focuses on four crucial days—January
nize the events and individuals pictured in
14-17, 1893—which are recalled by Trask,
the news clips from January 1993; the images
Kame`eleihiwa and Osorio. Each speaks
of 15,000 marchers and of spokesperson Hau-
directly to the camera, often in the present
nani-Kay Trask would operate as reminders of
tense. As elsewhere, quotations are voiced,
the challenge to public memory mounted by
here edited in an especially rapid tempo.
Hawaiian activists. Viewers completely unfa-
The most obvious rupture in presentational
miliar with Hawai`i could still recognize the
style and mode of argument comes when the
iconography of protest and the documentary’s
source of the title is revealed to be President
unambiguous rhetorical position.
Grover Cleveland, who said: “By an act of
The fi lm’s strategy is persuasion through
war, the government of a friendly and confi d-
historical elaboration. Four scholars—Trask,
ing people has been overthrown. A substantial
Kame`eleihiwa, Kekuni Blaisdell, and Jon
wrong has thus been done which we should
Kamakawiwo`ole Osorio—all Hawaiians, all endeavor to repair.”20 The film then shifts
identifi ed with their academic credentials, join
to a mele (traditional Hawaiian song) on the
the off-screen narrator in telling the story of
soundtrack and archival footage of turn-of-
the overthrow of the Hawaiian nation. Trask
the-century life in Hawai`i on the visual track.
is the primary storyteller, with almost fifty
Superimposed on these vintage moving im-
turns. Blaisdell is not identifi ed as “Citizen
ages is an English translation of the Hawaiian
of the Hawaiian Nation” as he had been in
song lyrics, alternating with captions describ-
Hawaiians, but that citizenship is implied
ing historical events of 1894-96, including the
through an attitude of righteous indignation
declaration of the Republic of Hawai`i in 1894,
that characterizes the comments of all four
the (failed) counter-revolution of 1895 and the
speakers. According to Osorio, Act of War is
imprisonment and subsequent pardoning
“Native history, revisionist history.” When
of the Queen. In a dramatic gesture, English
the historian joined the project, Puhipau pre-
92 SPRING 2003