Table Of ContentYOGPR 6/1/99 4:43 PM Page i
YOGHURT
Science and Technology
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
YOGPR 6/1/99 4:43 PM Page ii
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© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
YOGPR 6/1/99 4:43 PM Page iii
YOGHURT
Science and Technology
Second edition
A. Y. Tamime
Scottish Agricultural College Auchincruive,
Food Standards & Product Technology Department,
Ayr KA6 5HW,
Scotland
R. K. Robinson
University of Reading,
Department of Food Science & Technology,
Reading RG6 2AP,
England
Cambridge England
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
YOGPR 6/1/99 4:43 PM Page iv
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited
Abington Hall,Abington
Cambridge CB1 6AH
England
Published in North and South America by CRC Press LLC
2000 Corporate Blvd,NW
Boca Raton FL 33431
USA
First published 1985,Pergamon Press Ltd
Second edition 1999,Woodhead Publishing Ltd and CRC Press LLC
© 1999,Woodhead Publishing Ltd
The authors have asserted their moral rights.
Conditions of sale
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
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Woodhead Publishing ISBN 1 85573 399 4
CRC Press ISBN 0-8493-1785-1
CRC Press order number:WP1785
Cover design by The ColourStudio
Typeset by Best-set Typesetter Ltd.,Hong Kong
Printed by TJ International,Cornwall,England.
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
YOGPR 6/1/99 4:43 PM Page v
Contents
Preface to second edition
Preface to first edition
1 Historical background
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of the process
1.3 Diversity of fermented milks
1.4 Patterns of consumption
1.5 Methods of production and classification
1.6 References
2 Background to manufacturing practice
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Preliminary treatment of the milk base
2.2.1 Milk as a raw material
2.2.2 Separation of cellular matter and other contaminants
present in milk
2.2.3 Milk reception and storage
2.3 Standardisation of fat content in milk
2.4 Standardisation of the solids-not-fat content in milk
2.4.1 Traditional process
2.4.2 Addition of milk powder
2.4.3 Addition of buttermilk powder
2.4.4 Addition of whey powder and/or whey protein
concentrates
2.4.5 Addition of casein powder
2.4.6 Concentration by vacuum evaporation (VE)
2.4.7 Concentration by membrane filtration
2.4.8 Addition of non-milk proteins
2.5 Addition of stabilisers/emulsifiers
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
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2.5.1 General background
2.5.2 Miscellaneous properties and conditions
2.6 Addition of sweetening agents
2.6.1 General introduction
2.6.2 Types of carbohydrate sweetener
2.7 Addition of miscellaneous compounds
2.7.1 Penicillinase
2.7.2 Preservatives
2.7.3 Minerals, vitamins and/or fatty acids
2.8 Homogenisation
2.8.1 Effects on milk constituents
2.8.2 Aspects of processing
2.9 Heat treatment
2.9.1 Destruction of micro-organisms/pathogens
2.9.2 Production of stimulatory/inhibitory factors
2.9.3 Changes in the physicochemical properties of milk
2.9.4 Processing effects on the physical properties of
the gel
2.10 Fermentation process
2.10.1 Introduction
2.10.2 Starter organisms
2.10.3 Gel formation
2.11 Cooling
2.11.1 One-phase cooling
2.11.2 Two-phase cooling
2.12 Addition of fruit/flavouring/colouring ingredients
2.12.1 Fruits
2.12.2 Flavouring agents
2.12.3 Colouring matter
2.13 Packaging
2.13.1 Introduction
2.13.2 Functions of packages
2.13.3 Types of packaging materials
2.13.4 Comparative studies on permeability of different
yoghurt packages
2.13.5 Migration of monomers and other compounds
2.13.6 Tamper-evident packaging
2.13.7 Aluminium foil lids
2.13.8 Sterilisation of packaging materials
2.13.9 Outer or shipping container
2.14 Refrigerated cold storage, transport and distribution
2.14.1 The cold store
2.14.2 During transport
2.14.3 The retail shop and the consumer
2.15 Conclusion
2.16 References
3 Processing plants and equipment
3.1 Home or small-scale production
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
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3.1.1 Miscellaneous systems
3.1.2 Packaging system
3.2 Medium-scale production
3.2.1 Hand operated vat
3.2.2 Multipurpose vat
3.2.3 Mini dairy
3.2.4 Small-scale packaging machines
3.3 Large-scale production
3.3.1 Milk reception, handling and storage
3.3.2 Standardisation of fat content in milk
3.3.3 Fortification of milk solids
3.3.4 Homogenisation
3.3.5 Heat treatment
3.3.6 Fermentation/incubation of the milk
3.3.7 Cooling
3.3.8 Pumps
3.3.9 Miscellaneous fittings
3.3.10 Fruit handling and mixing units
3.3.11 Filling machines
3.3.12 Miscellaneous handling, chill cooling and refrigerated
cold storage
3.4 Mechanisation of yoghurt production and plant design
3.5 Continuous yoghurt production
3.5.1 Background
3.5.2 The NIZO process
3.5.3 Recent developments
3.6 Automation/process control
3.6.1 Levels of automation
3.6.2 Area/department 1
3.6.3 Area/department 2
3.6.4 Area/department 3
3.6.5 Area/department 4
3.6.6 Area/department 5
3.6.7 Area/department 6
3.6.8 Management information system
3.6.9 System architecture
3.6.10 System security
3.7 Building design, maintenance and services
3.7.1 General background and introduction
3.7.2 Location of a dairy plant
3.7.3 Layout of a dairy plant
3.7.4 Design and construction of dairy buildings
3.8 Conclusion
3.9 References
4 Plant cleaning, hygiene and effluent treatment
Cleaning aspects
4.1 Primary objectives
4.2 Principles of the cleaning process
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
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4.3 Factors involved in the selection and performance
of a detergent
4.3.1 Type/range of detergents used in the yoghurt
industry
4.3.2 Type of soiling matter
4.3.3 Water hardness and quality
4.3.4 Miscellaneous factors
4.4 Cleaning methods
4.4.1 Manual cleaning
4.4.2 Cleaning-in-place
4.4.3 Miscellaneous cleaning methods
4.5 Factors influencing the efficiency of cleaning
4.5.1 Type of soil
4.5.2 Method of cleaning adopted
4.5.3 Contact time
4.5.4 Concentration of detergent solution
4.5.5 Temperature
4.5.6 Flow rate or velocity
4.5.7 Acid wash
4.5.8 Plant design
4.5.9 Chemical composition of a detergent
4.6 Specific cleaning and sterilisation operations of yoghurt
processing equipment and utensils
Sterilisation aspects
4.7 Fundamentals of the sterilisation process
4.8 Methods of sterilisation and/or sanitation
4.8.1 Heat
4.8.2 Chemical agents
4.8.3 Filtration
4.8.4 Irradiation
4.8.5 Spraying, fogging or fumigation
4.9 Kinetics and mechanisms of microbial destruction
4.10 Means of assessing the sanitary condition of
a processing plant
4.10.1 Physical examination
4.10.2 Chemical examination
4.10.3 Bacteriological examination
Effluent treatment .
4.11 Background
4.12 Nature of pollution
4.13 Methods of effluent treatment
4.14 References
5 Traditional and recent developments in yoghurt production and
related products
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Standard commercial yoghurt
5.3 Yoghurt made from different mammalian milks
5.3.1 Goat’s milk yoghurt
© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited
