Wibisono, Ali Abdullah (2015) Securitisation of terrorism in Indonesia. PhD thesis, University of

346 Pages·2017·2.54 MB·English

by  Christine Middleton

Securitisation of Terrorism in Indonesia
ALI ABDULLAH WIBISONO
Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
March 2015
Securitisation of Terrorism in Indonesia
Abstract
This study explores the securitising move attempted by the government of President
MegawatiSukarnoputrithroughthe promulgationofInterim Laws 1/2002 and2/2002 onTerrorism
CrimeEradicationandtheirstipulationasstatutesin2003areexaminedinthisstudy.Thisstudyalso
examines the discussion of the meaning of and appropriate responses to terrorism in Indonesia’s
mainstream print media before (1998-2002) and after (2003-2010) with reference to the
securitisation process. The goal of this thesis is to illustrate the continuing influence of the political
meaning of terrorism on the articulated speech act of the government and the responses of the
audiences.
This study shows that the political interpretation of terrorism continually influences its
treatmentasapublicissue,politicisedissueandsecuritisedissue.Beforeitssecuritisation,terrorism
was interpreted as politically motivated violence intended to create disorder and communal
conflicts, destabilise the executive power and thwart attempts to put former President Suharto on
trial. Terrorism was also seen as an attempt to discredit Indonesian Islam as the perpetrators were
described as belonging to an Islamic group. In the aftermath of the 2002 Bali bombings, these
politicalinterpretationswereovercomebythesecuritisationofterrorismasanextra-ordinarycrime.
The choice of language (repertoire) of the government’s securitising move indicated an absence of
the presentation of an existential threat to state survival. Instead, it emphasised the lack of legal
instrumentsavailabletorespondtoterrorismasanextra-ordinarycrime.Thesecuritisingmovealso
eliminated the political meaning of the concept of terrorism. Interim Law 1/2002 on Terrorism
EradicationLawadoptedtheexclusionofterrorismcrimefrompoliticalviolence.
The inherently political meaning of terrorism in Indonesia means that its securitisation
rhetoric must choose a language of exceptionalism without invoking identities and political
antagonisms. The presentation of terrorism as an extra-ordinary crime which needed immediate
legal handling facilitated its approval in the parliament. On the other hand, the explicitly non-
political interpretation of terrorism by-passed the differences between interpretations of terrorism
andsecurityconceptsinthesecuritisation’swideraudiences.
The success ofthe securitisationprocess,indicatedby the approvalofthe stipulationofthe
Interim Laws as statutes, changed the way terrorism is discussed publicly: as a continuing danger
which manifested in acts of terrorism, as part of global (Islamic) terrorism problem, as a religious
radicalism problem, and as a problem of professional capacity of the security apparatuses.
Nevertheless, it did not put the public’s political interpretation of terrorism to an end. Two notable
frames, the connection between acts of terrorism and local and national elections and their
interpretationasameanstodiscreditIndonesianIslamcontinuedtoappearinthemediacoverage.
This study provides a compelling explanation of how the government adjusted its speech
acts to frame terrorism as exceptional and one requiring different responses depending upon the
prevailing narrative of the time. The adoption of an extraordinary measure in the aftermath of the
Balibombingwasaccomplishedwithoutthepresentationofanexistentialthreatasthatwouldhave
been counter-productive. This study thus provides an excellent account of Indonesian policy and
addstoourunderstandingofhowissuescanbesecuritised.
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketothankmysupervisorsDrPaulineEadieandProfessorWynReesewhose
advisesandfeedbackshavebeeninvaluableintheconceptionandwritingofthisthesis.
IthankDrTonyBurnsandDrBenHollandfortheirconstructivefeedbacksontheearly
draftsofthethesisastheydevelopedovertheyears.
IalsothankthefellowPhDstudentsFionaWilliams,JennyMoreno,YumikoKaneko,
VladimirRauta,FilipoBoniandArefwhohavebeensharingstoriesandaccompanythis
thesis’writing.
FinallyandmostimportantlyIthankmywifeTheaWibisonowhoselove,dedicationand
patiencehavebroughtmesomuchjoyandhappiness.
Thisthesisisdedicatedtothelovingmemoryofmyfatherwhoseeducationandlovefor
me,mymother,andmytwoelderbrothershavemadeuswholehumanbeings.
Table of Contents
Chapter1
Introduction
Introduction........................................................................................................................................1
ResearchQuestion..............................................................................................................................4
ConsiderationofSecuritisationFramework ......................................................................................5
ConsiderationofTerrorismStudies....................................................................................................9
CentralArguments............................................................................................................................12
SignificanceoftheResearch.............................................................................................................14
HistoricalBackground:FromIndependencetoReformasiEra.........................................................17
OrganisationoftheResearch............................................................................................................40
Chapter2
CriticalLiteratureReview
Introduction......................................................................................................................................45
TerrorismasaPublicDiscourse........................................................................................................46
Theconstitutionofterrorismdiscourse...........................................................................................56
PublicDiscourseandGovernment’sResponsetoTerrorism............................................................64
PublicDiscoursesofTerrorisminIndonesia.....................................................................................70
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................77
Chapter3
ConceptualFramework
Introduction......................................................................................................................................81
ThePublic/PoliticalProcessintheStudiesofSecuritisation............................................................82
PublicProcessandtheSecuritisationProcess..................................................................................94
PublicProcessandSecurityRhetoric.......................................................................................97
HistoricalandContextualConjuncture..................................................................................102
CollectiveMemory.................................................................................................................104
PublicProcessandAudienceApproval...........................................................................................106
Securitisationofthenon-RadicalOther..........................................................................................109
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................115
Chapter4
Methodology
Introduction....................................................................................................................................118
UtilisingthePost-StructuralistDiscourseAnalysisMethodology...................................................119
Linking-and-Differentiation.............................................................................................................126
MediaFrames.................................................................................................................................129
Inter-textualisingAnti-TerrorismPolicy..........................................................................................132
HowAuthorityisConstructedinTexts...........................................................................................137
ResearchDesign..............................................................................................................................138
SelectionofCaseStudy..........................................................................................................139
SelectionofPeriodandEventsunderStudy..........................................................................140
WhatTextstoSelect..............................................................................................................142
TextsofParliamentaryhearings.....................................................................................................145
LawsandDraftLaws.......................................................................................................................147
MediaTexts.....................................................................................................................................147
HowtoReadtheSelectedTexts.....................................................................................................150
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................153
Chapter5
DiscoursesofTerrorismintheImmediateReformasiera(1999-2001)
Introduction....................................................................................................................................155
TheFirstDemocraticElectionandCommunalConflicts.................................................................156
Terrorasprovocation......................................................................................................................159
TerrorasElection-Sabotage............................................................................................................164
TerrorasIslamMarginalisation......................................................................................................165
TheYearofthe‘PoliticalTerror’.....................................................................................................168
TerrorasInstability................................................................................................................168
TerrorasTerrorism................................................................................................................174
ChristmasEveBombingsandtheTensionbetweenFrames..........................................................179
TerrorasInstability................................................................................................................180
TerrorasWell-OrganisedWork.............................................................................................184
CriticalAcceptanceof‘Terrorism’Discourse..................................................................................188
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................190
Chapter6
SecuritisationofTerrorismIssueinPublicDiscourse
Introduction....................................................................................................................................193
TheBuild-upof‘Al-Qaeda’sPresence’Discourse...........................................................................195
The2002Balibombings..................................................................................................................205
TerrorismasSecurityIssue.............................................................................................................206
TerrorismasSelf-Humiliation................................................................................................210
TerrorismasaCauseforNationalUnity................................................................................211
ContendingFrame: TerrorismasConspiracy.................................................................................213
Government’s‘Anti-Terrorism’Discourses.....................................................................................218
AParticularKindof‘Emergency’...........................................................................................219
Terrorismasan‘Extra-OrdinaryCrime’creating‘LegalInsufficiency’...................................222
TerrorismasCrimeAgainstHumanityJustifyingRetroactivity..............................................226
TerrorismandIndonesia’sTemporalIdentity.......................................................................230
PublicResponsetoAnti-TerrorismInterimLaws............................................................................235
Anti-TerrorismWithoutThe‘Terrorists’:HowNotToDesignatetheEnemy.................................237
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................241
Chapter7
ParliamentaryHearingsonAnti-TerrorismDraftLawsandTerrorismPublicDiscourse
inPost2002BaliBombings
Introduction....................................................................................................................................246
TheFormatofTheParliamentaryHearings....................................................................................248
TheExecutive’s‘Voice’....................................................................................................................252
How‘Extra-Ordinary’IstheAnti-TerrorismLaw?...........................................................................256
TheParliamentaryHearings............................................................................................................261
DefendingtheATL:ExceptionalismArguments..............................................................................262
SpecialCommittee’sResponse.......................................................................................................268
CriticalNotes...................................................................................................................................272
FinalPositions.................................................................................................................................276
TerrorismPublicDiscourseinPost2002BaliBombings.................................................................277
TerrorismasRealDanger.......................................................................................................279
TerrorismasAnti-IslamConspiracy.......................................................................................281
TerrorismDe-securitisation...................................................................................................282
Anti-TerrorismLawInAction..........................................................................................................284
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................289
Chapter8
Conclusion
SummaryofCentralArguments......................................................................................................293
SummaryofFindings.......................................................................................................................297
SecuritisingActorsinIndonesia’sSecuritisationofTerrorism........................................................299
TheSecuritisingActorExceptionalised‘Terrorism’withintheStructureofPublicDiscourseof
Terrorism ........................................................................................................................................300
ThesuccessofIndonesia’sSecuritisationofTerrorismIssueisduetoanabsenceofaParticular
TerroristImage ...............................................................................................................................307
TheGovernmentwasabletoconvincetheParliamenttoPasstheAnti-TerrorismLawwiththe
Virtueof‘LegalAdequacy’and‘LegalVacuum’Arguments...........................................................312
Thegovernmentestablisheditsauthorityinthesecuritisationprocessthroughdrawingreferences
frominternationalandacademicterms.........................................................................................314
HowUsefulIstheSecuritisationFramework?................................................................................315
Bibliography........................................................................................................................................316
Abbreviations
AFP AgenceFrancePresse
AMIN AngkatanMujahidinIslamNusantara/NusantaraIslamicMujahidinForce
AP AssociatedPres
ATL Anti-TerrorismLaw(Law15/2003andLaw16/2003,identicalwithInterimLaw
1/2002andInterimLaw2/2002,respectively)
BAKIN StateIntelligenceCoordinatingAgency(BadanKoordinasiIntelijenNegara)
Bakorstanas CoordinatingAgencyfortheMaintenanceofNationalStability/BadanKoordinasi
PemantapanStabilitasNasional
BAIS StrategicIntelligenceBody/ArmyIntelligence(BadanIntelijen
Strategis)
BIN StateIntelligenceAgency/IntelligenceCoordinatingAgency(BadanIntelijenNegara)
BNPT NationalTerrorismMitigationBody(BadanNasionalPenanggulanganTerorisme)
CIA CentralIntelligenceAgency
CSIS CentralforStrategicandInternationalStudies–Jakarta
DENSUS88 Detachment88/PoliceAnti-TerrorSpecialForces
DPR People’sLegislativeCouncil–IndonesianParliament(DewanPerwakilanRakyat)
FID PeacefulIndonesiaForum(ForumIndonesiaDamai)
FPI IslamicDefendersFront(FrontPembelaIslam)
GAM FreeAcehMovement(GerakanAcehMerdeka)
GOLKAR TheFunctionalGroup/Government’spoliticalparty(GolonganKarya)
GPK SecurityDisruptorMovements(GerakanPengacauKeamanan)
GULTOR Detachment81TerrorMitigation/Counter-TerroristUnitoftheIndonesianArmy
SpecialForces(Detasemen81PenanggulanganTeror)
JI Jema’ahIslamiyah
Kassospol ChiefofSocialandPoliticalStaffoftheIndonesianArmedForces(KepalaStaf
SosialPolitik)
KNPI NationalCommitteeofIndonesianYouths(KomiteNasionalPemudaIndonesia)
KOMNASHAM NationalHumanRightsCommission(KomisiNasionalHakAsasiManusia)
KONTRAS CommissionfortheDisappearedandVictimsofViolence(KomisiUntukOrang
HilangdanKorbanTindakKekerasan)
KOPASSUS ArmySpecialForcesCommand(KomandoPasukanKhusus)
KOPKAMTIB SecurityandOrderRestorationCommand(KomandoPemulihanKeamanandan
Ketertiban)
KUHAP CriminalProceduralCode(KitabUndang-undangHukumPerdata)
KUHP PenalCode(KitabUndang-UndangHukumPidana)
LAKSUSDA SpecialLocalExecutors(PelaksanaKhususDaerah)
LIPI IndonesianScienceInstitution(LembagaIlmuPengetahuanIndonesia)
MMI IndonesianMujahidinCouncil(MajelisMujahidinIndonesia)
MPR People’sConsultativeAssembly(MajelisPerwakilanRakyat)
MUI CouncilofIndonesianClerics(MajelisUlamaIndonesia)
NI IslamicStateofIndonesia(NegaraIslamIndonesia)
NKRI UnitaryStateofRepublicofIndonesia(NegaraKesatuanRepublikIndonesia)
NU NahdlatulUlama
OPM FreePapuaMovement (OrganisasiPapuaMerdeka)
PAN NationalMandateParty(PartaiAmanatNasional)
Pangab CommanderoftheArmedForces(PanglimaAngkatanBersenjataRepublik
Indonesia)
PBB MoonandCrescentParty(PartaiBulanBintang)
PBHI LegalCounselandHumanRightsAssociation(PerhimpunanBantuanHukumdan
HAM)
PDI IndonesianDemocracyParty(PartaiDemokrasiIndonesia)
PDI-P IndonesianDemocracyParty-Struggle(PartaiDemokrasiIndonesiaPerjuangan)
PDU Umma’sSovereigntyParty(PartaiDaulatUmmat)
PERPU InterimLaw/By-Law (PeraturanPemerintahPenggantiUndang-Undang)
PK JusticeParty(PartaiKeadilan)
PKB NationalAwakeningParty(PartaiKebangkitanBangsa)
PKI IndonesianCommunistParty(PartaiKomunisIndonesia)
PKKI IndonesianUnityandNationhoodPart(PartaiKesatuandanKebangsaanIndonesia)
POLRI IndonesianPoliceForce(PolisiRepublikIndonesia)
PPP UnityandDevelopmentParty(PartaiPersatuanPembangunan)
TNI IndonesianArmedForces(TentaraNasionalIndonesia)
UN UnitedNations
UNSFIR UnitedNationsSupportFacilityforIndonesianRecovery