Wastewater re-use, stormwater management, and the national water reform agenda

239 Pages·1997·1.13 MB·English

Wastewater Re-use
Stormwater Management
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CSIRO Land and Water
Research Position Paper 1
Wastewater Re-use,
Stormwater Management,
and the
National Water Reform Agenda
Report to the
Sustainable Land and Water Resources
Management Committee
and to the
Council of Australian Governments
National Water Reform Task Force
J.F. Thomas, J. Gomboso, J.E. Oliver, and V.A. Ritchie
CSIRO Land and Water
Research Position Paper 1
1997
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Entry
Wastewater re-use, stormwater management, and the national
water reform agenda : report to the Sustainable Land and Water
Resources Management Committee and to the Council of
Australian Governments National Water Reform Task Force.
Bibliography.
ISBN 0 643 06050 2.
1. Wastewater re-use – Australia. 2. Water resources development
– Australia. 3. Storm sewers – Australia. I. Thomas, John F. II.
CSIRO. Land and water. III. Sustainable Land and Water
Resources Management Committee. IV. Council of Australian
Governments. National Water Reform Task Force. (Series :
Research position paper ; 1).
628.162
Cover photograph by Bill van Aken, CSIRO Land and Water
Publication enquiries to:
Communication Officer
CSIRO Land and Water
Canberra Laboratory
Black Mountain, ACT 2601
Australia
email: [email protected] ISSN 1329-5713
Preface
IN June 1993, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG)
requested that a Working Group of officials, under an independent
chair, prepare a strategic framework for efficient and sustainable reform
of the water industry, having regard for the technical and policy
diversity existing across the States and Territories of Australia. In
February 1994, COAG participants committed their governments to the
Working Group’s recommendations with minor detailed modifications
and, in September 1996, ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resources
Management Council of Australia and New Zealand) published Generic
National Milestones for Actions to Implement the Strategic Framework for
Water Reform.
As well as highlighting the need for reforms directed at improving the
economic efficiency of the water industry, the Working Group drew
attention to widespread natural resource degradation resulting from
current water allocation and management, and urged all jurisdictions to
arrest this process. The Working Group recommended that the strategic
framework for reform should include environmentally sustainable
management of wastewater and stormwater from metropolitan and
town water services.
This is one of a series of studies coordinated by the Sub-committee on
Water Resources of ARMCANZ as a response to the issues raised by the
Strategic Framework for Water Reform, 1994.
The Terms of Reference are to:
• Examine the ramifications of making greater use of wastewater in urban areas, and strategies
for handling stormwater, including its use, and
• Review current approaches to town wastewater and sewage disposal to sensitive environ-
ments, noting that action is underway to reduce accessions to watercourses from key centres
on the Darling River system.
The first part of the Terms of Reference was undertaken in conjunction
with the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation
Council (ANZECC). The second part was considered as a part of the
development of the National Water Quality Management Strategy, also
in conjunction with ANZECC. In developing the report, reference has
also been made to the Ministerial Council for Planning, Housing and
Local Government (MCPHLG).
The Study was undertaken under the supervision of a Steering
Committee comprising:
David Mittelheuser, Department of Land and Water Conservation,
New South Wales (Chairman)
Terry Scott, Melbourne Water
Alan Thomas, Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency
Volker Aeukens, Commonwealth Department of Primary Industry
and Energy
Jonathan Thomas (Project Leader)
The CSIRO team was:
Jonathon F. Thomas (Project Leader)
Jeanette Gomboso
Janice E. Oliver
Veronica A. Ritchie.
A description of the work program is given in Appendix A. Terry Scott
of Melbourne Water coordinated the National Effluent Re-use Survey
reported in the study.
This report addresses issues raised by the policy principles of the
COAG Water Reform Agenda in relation to the re-use of wastewater,
improved urban stormwater management, and adoption of superior
practices regarding disposal to sensitive environments. It is particularly
concerned with the development of recommendations regarding:
•
current and potential practices
•
technical obstacles and opportunities
•
environmental and public health constraints
•
economic and incentive structures
•
the regulatory environment
•
the role of community involvement
•
catchment-based resource management, and
•
development of institutional roles and responsibilities.
The layout of the report follows the three topics which were addressed
in meeting the terms of reference:
•
Part 1 outlines a number of strategic issues for the water sector that
follow from the National Water Reform Agenda, and outlines the
problems encountered with discharges to sensitive environments
•
Part II considers re-use of wastewaters
•
Part III deals with stormwater management.
Following submission of this report as a draft in February 1996, a Policy
Discussion Paper was coordinated by the Commonwealth Department
of Primary Industries and Energy for consideration by ARMCANZ.
However, the contents and conclusions of this report, are the
responsibility of CSIRO, and are not necessarily endorsed by
ARMCANZ, or the Department of Primary Industries and Energy.
Jonathon F. Thomas
December 1996
Acknowledgements
The Project Leader thanks all members of the Study Steering Committee: David
Mittelheuser, the Chairman, for his unstinting support and enthusiasm; Volker Aeukens,
for his masterly guidance through ARMCANZ processes; Dr Alan Thomas, for his advice
on ANZECC and MCPHLG linkages; and Terry Scott, who was responsible for the
conduct of the National Effluent Re-use Survey.
Many others contributed essential information and constructive ideas, including Jeff
Brown, Richard Clark, Pat Condina, Wally Fink, Don Gardiner, Peter Hoey, Fred King,
Ian lawrence, Cary Reynolds, Des Semple, and Ivan Unkovitch.
The assistance of Phillipa Wittenoom with literature review is gratefully acknowledged.
Finally the authors thank the external referees for their efforts in reviewing the final draft
of this report. Nevertheless, CSIRO assumes all responsibility for the contents of the
report.
Jonathon F. Thomas
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT i
B. ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND i
Wastewater and Stormwater in the Urban Water Cycle i
Impacts of Wastewater and Stormwater Discharges on Receiving Waters iii
C. RE-USE OF WASTEWATERS vi
Potential for Re-Use vi
Planned Re-Use viii
Implications for the COAG National Water Reform Agenda ix
D. IMPROVING STORMWATER MANAGEMENT xi
Management Objectives xi
Management Practices xii
Implications for the COAG National Water Reform Agenda xii
E. RESEARCH NEEDS xv
PART I: BACKGROUND 1
1. COAG’S STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK 3
2. ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL BACKGROUND 3
2.1 Demand of Urban Areas on the Water Resource Error! Bookmark not defined.3
2.2 Costs 4
2.3 Externalities 5
2.4 Technical Change 5
3. DISCHARGE OF WASTEWATERS TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 7
3.1 Sensitive Marine Environments – Definition 7
3.2 Overview of Issues 7
3.3 Projected Discharges of Wastewaters to Marine Environments 8
3.4 Coastal Water Quality Protection Policies 10
4. DISCHARGE OF WASTEWATERS TO INLAND/FRESH WATERS 12
4.1 Overview 12
4.2 Murray-Darling Basin 13
4.3 Hawkesbury-Nepean River Basin 13
4.4 Projected Discharges 14
5. INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 16
5.1 Overview 16
5.2 Institutional Roles and Responsibilities for Stormwater Management 16
5.3 The National Water Quality Management Strategy 17
PART II: RE-USE OF WASTEWATERS 19
6. REASONS FOR RE-USE 21
6.1 Supplementary Supply 21
6.2 Resource Management 22
6.3 Cost Minimisation 22
6.4 Environmental Protection 22
6.5 Political/Institutional Constraints 22
7. TREATMENT METHODS 24
8. USES FOR RECLAIMED WATER 29
8.1 Irrigation of Woodlots, Crops and Pastures 30
8.2 Irrigation of Landscape and Recreational Areas 31
8.3 Non-Potable Residential Re-use 32
8.4 Potable Re-use 35
8.5 Industrial/Commercial Re-use 36
8.6 Re-use In Groundwater Systems 37
8.7 Stormwater Re-use 38
8.8 Sludge Re-use 39
8.9 Conclusions 40
9. PUBLIC ACCEPTABILITY AND HEALTH ISSUES 40
9.1 Public Acceptability of Re-use 40
9.2 Known Public Health Impacts of Re-use Projects 41
9.3 Role of Re-use Guidelines and of the Regulator 43
9.4 Conclusions on Public Health and Acceptability 44
10. ECONOMICS OF WASTEWATER RE-USE 45
10.1 Engineering Costs 45
10.2 Environmental Economic Analysis of Wastewater Re-use Projects 48
10.3 Cost of Nutrient Removal 54
10.4 Conclusion 55
11. CURRENT AND PLANNED RE-USE OF TREATED SEWAGE IN AUSTRALIA 57
11.1 Sources Of Data 57
11.2 Australian Capital Territory 58
11.3 New South Wales 59
11.4 Northern Territory 62
11.5 Queensland 63
11.6 South Australia 65
11.7 Tasmania 68
11.8 Victoria 70
11.9 Western Australia 72
11.10 National Outlook For Re-use 75
12. WASTEWATER RE-USE AND THE NATIONAL WATER REFORM AGENDA 86
12.1 Initiation of Re-use Projects 86
12.2 Re-use and Contestable Markets 87
12.3 Pricing of Reclaimed Water and its Alternatives 88
12.4 Pricing of Water Utility Inputs 88
12.5 Regulation 89
12.6 Public Acceptability 90
12.7 Re-use Guidelines 91
PART III: STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 93
13. OVERVIEW 95
13.1 Definitions 95
13.2 Institutional Context 95
13.3 Stormwater Quantity and Quality 95
13.4 Stormwater Systems in Australia and Overseas 96
14. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF STORMWATER DISCHARGES 97
14.1 International Experience 97
14.2 Environmental Impacts of Urban Stormwater Discharges in Australia 98
15. CHANGING OBJECTIVES OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 101
16. STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 102
16.1 Overview of Practices 102
16.2 Structural In-line Controls 103
16.3 Structural Source Controls 105
16.4 Non-structural Source Controls 108
16.5 Combined Sewer Overflows 109
16.6 Summary: Management Approaches 112
17. PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 113
17.1 International Experience 113
17.2 CSIRO Study 114
18. ECONOMICS OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 116
18.1 Magnitude of Stormwater Pollution Abatement Costs 116
18.2 Applying Economic Principles to the Problem of Stormwater Management 119
18.3 Financing Stormwater Management Programs 122
18.4 Conclusions 123
19. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 123
19.1 COAG’s Institutional Principles for Water Resources Management 124
19.2 Institutional Responses in Other Countries 125
19.3 Institutional Arrangements in Australia 129
19.4 Conclusion 136
20. RESEARCH NEEDS 138
21. BIBLIOGRAPHY 141
APPENDICES
A. STUDY WORK PROGRAM
B. WASTEWATER DISPOSAL PRACTICES IN AUSTRALIA
C. WASTEWATER RE-USE PRACTICES IN AUSTRALIA, WITH SOME
INTERNATIONAL EXAMPLES
D. NATIONAL EFFLUENT RE-USE SURVEY, 1994 QUESTIONNAIRE
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ACRONYMS