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WaferManufacturing
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Wafer Manufacturing
Shaping of Single Crystal Silicon Wafers
Imin Kao
(cid:2) SUNYatStonyBrookUniversity (cid:2)
USA
Chunhui Chung
NationalChengKungUniversity
Taiwan
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Thiseditionfirstpublished2021
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Kao,Imin,author.|Chung,Chunhui,author.
Title:Wafermanufacturing:shapingofsinglecrystalsiliconwafers/
IminKao,ChunhuiChung.
Description:Firstedition.|Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,2021.|Includes
bibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2020034639(print)|LCCN2020034640(ebook)|ISBN
9780470061213(hardback)|ISBN9781118696255(adobepdf)|ISBN
9781118696231(epub)|ISBN9781118696224(obook)
Subjects:LCSH:Semiconductorwafers–Designandconstruction.
Classification:LCCTK7871.85.K2952021(print)|LCCTK7871.85(ebook)
|DDC621.3815/2–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2020034639
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2020034640
CoverDesign:Wiley
CoverImage:©kynny/GettyImages
Setin9.5/12.5ptSTIXTwoTextbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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v
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgement xiii
PartI FromCrystaltoPrimeWafers 1
1 WafersandSemiconductors 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 SemiconductorRevolution 3
(cid:2) 1.2.1 ClassificationofMaterials 3 (cid:2)
1.2.2 SemiconductorRevolutionToday 5
1.2.3 SiliconWafersandSolarCells 6
1.3 SiliconWafersUsedinDeviceManufacturing(ICandMEMS) 7
1.3.1 StandardWaferDiametersandSizes 8
1.3.2 CrystallineOrientationofSiliconWafers 9
1.3.3 Moore’sLaw 11
1.4 SurfacePropertiesandQualityMeasurementsofWafers 11
1.4.1 SurfaceWaviness:TTV,Bow,andWarp 11
1.4.2 DiscussiononWarp 16
1.4.3 AutomatedMeasurementsofTTV,Warp,Bow,andFlatness 17
1.4.4 WaferFlatness 17
1.4.5 NanotopographyorNanotopology 21
1.4.6 SurfaceRoughness 22
1.5 OtherPropertiesandQualityRequirementsofSiliconWafers 27
1.5.1 MechanicalandMaterialProperties 27
1.5.2 PropertyofSiliconwithAnisotropy 27
1.5.3 Gravity-inducedDeflectionofWafers 30
1.5.4 WaferEdgeProperties 31
1.6 EconomicsofWaferManufacturing 32
1.6.1 ThreeCategoriesofWafers 32
1.6.2 CostofSiliconWafers 34
1.7 Summary 35
References 35
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vi Contents
2 WaferManufacturing:GeneralizedProcessesandFlow 39
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 WaferManufacturing:GeneralizedProcessFlow 39
2.3 CrystalGrowth 41
2.3.1 MeltGrowth 41
2.3.2 VaporGrowth 49
2.3.3 EpitaxialGrowth 49
2.3.4 CastingPolycrystallineCrystal 51
2.3.5 OtherCrystalGrowthMethods 51
2.4 WaferForming 52
2.4.1 Cropping 52
2.4.2 Trimming 52
2.4.3 OrientationIdentification 52
2.4.4 Slicing 52
2.4.5 SlicingUsingtheInner-diameter(ID)Saw 53
2.4.6 SlicingUsingaWiresaw 54
2.4.7 OtherToolsforSlicing 55
2.4.8 EdgeRounding 56
2.5 WaferPolishing 56
2.5.1 Lapping 57
2.5.2 Grinding 57
(cid:2) 2.5.3 Etching 58 (cid:2)
2.5.4 Polishing 58
2.6 WaferPreparation 58
2.6.1 Cleaning 58
2.6.2 Inspection 59
2.6.3 Packaging 59
2.7 IndustrialProcessesofWaferManufacturing 59
2.7.1 CrystalGrowth 60
2.7.2 WaferForming 61
2.7.3 WaferLappingandPolishing 63
2.7.4 WaferPreparation 66
2.8 Summary 67
References 68
3 ProcessModelingandManufacturingProcesses 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 WaferManufacturingandBrittleMaterials 71
3.3 DuctileMachiningVersusBrittleMachining 73
3.4 AbrasiveMachininginWaferManufacturing 74
3.4.1 BondedAbrasiveMachining(BAM) 75
3.4.2 FreeAbrasiveMachining(FAM) 75
3.5 AbrasiveMaterials 76
3.5.1 ClassificationoftheGrainSizeofAbrasiveMaterials 77
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Contents vii
3.5.2 HardnessofAbrasiveMaterials 78
3.5.3 CommonlyUsedAbrasiveMaterialsinWaferManufacturing 81
3.6 DuctileMachiningofBrittleMaterials 82
3.6.1 ResearchonDuctileMachiningandChallenges 83
3.6.2 OpportunityandFutureResearch 83
3.7 ProcessModelingofWaferManufacturingProcesses 84
3.7.1 Rolling-indentingandScratching-indentingProcessModelsofFAM 84
3.7.2 ComparisonBetweenWiresawingandLapping 87
3.7.3 OtherAspectsofEngineeringModeling 88
3.8 AbrasiveSlurryinFAMProcesses 89
3.8.1 CompositionofAbrasiveSlurry 89
3.8.2 ComparisonofWaterandGlycolasaCarrierFluidforSlurry 90
3.8.3 RecyclingofAbrasiveGritsinSlurry 91
3.9 Summary 93
References 93
PartII WaferForming 97
4 WaferSlicingUsingaModernSlurryWiresawandOther
Saws 99
(cid:2) 4.1 Introduction 99 (cid:2)
4.2 TheModernWiresawTechnology 100
4.2.1 HistoricalPerspectivesofSawsUsingWire 100
4.2.2 TheRiseofthePVIndustryandWaferSlicing 102
4.3 TheThreeCategoriesofSawforWaferSlicing 103
4.4 Inner-diameter(ID)Saw 103
4.5 TheModernSlurryWiresaw 105
4.5.1 TheControlandProgramConsole 106
4.5.2 TheWireManagementUnit 106
4.5.3 Uni-directionalVersusBi-directionalWireMotion 110
4.5.4 TheSlicingCompartment 113
4.5.5 DirectionsofIngotFeeding 114
4.5.6 ConsumablesandOtherOperations 116
4.6 ComparisonBetweentheIDSawandWiresaw 116
4.7 ResearchIssuesinWiresawManufacturingProcesses 120
4.8 Summary 121
References 121
5 ModelingoftheWiresawManufacturingProcessandMaterial
Characteristics 127
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 TheRolling-indentingModel 129
5.3 VibrationModelingandAnalysis 131
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viii Contents
5.3.1 AHistoricalPerspectiveontheVibrationofWire 132
5.3.2 EquationofMotionofaMovingWire 133
5.3.3 ModalAnalysisofanUndampedMovingWire 134
5.3.4 ResponseforPoint-wiseHarmonicExcitation 134
5.3.5 NaturalFrequencyofVibrationandStability 135
5.3.6 NumericalSolutionUsingGalerkin’sMethod 138
5.3.7 ResponseofMultiple-pointandDistributedExcitations 139
5.3.8 FrequencyResponseofMultipleExcitations 141
5.3.9 VibrationResponsesofaMovingWirewithDamping 143
5.3.10 Discussions 144
5.4 DampingFactoroftheSlurryWiresawSystems 145
5.5 Elasto-hydrodynamicProcessModeling 147
5.5.1 ApproachofModelingofEHDintheWiresawingProcess 148
5.5.2 TheoreticalModeling 149
5.5.3 ResultsoftheEHDAnalysis 150
5.5.4 ImplicationsRelatedtoFloatingMachiningandRolling-indenting
ModelingofModernSlurryWiresaws 152
5.5.5 ImportantConclusionsfromEHDModeling 155
5.6 ThermalManagement 156
5.7 Wire,WireWeb,andSlurryManagement 156
5.7.1 Real-timeandOn-lineMonitoringofWireWear 157
(cid:2) 5.7.2 MonitoringthePitchoftheWireWebSpacing 160 (cid:2)
5.7.3 MixingRatioofSlurryConsistingofAbrasiveGritsandCarrier
Fluid 162
5.8 Summary 162
References 163
6 Diamond-ImpregnatedWireSawsandtheSawing
Process 169
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 ManufacturingProcessesofDiamond-impregnatedWires 171
6.2.1 ResinoidWires 172
6.2.2 ElectroplatedWires 174
6.2.3 MachinesandOperationsofDiamondWireSaws 175
6.3 SlicingMechanismofaDiamondWireSaw 177
6.4 PropertiesofWafersSlicedbyDiamondWireSaws 180
6.4.1 WaferSurface 180
6.4.2 WaferFractureStrength 181
6.4.3 ResidualStressandStressRelaxation 182
6.4.4 PVWaferEfficiency 182
6.4.5 CostofWafering 182
6.5 SlicingPerformancewithDifferentProcessParameters 183
6.5.1 EffectofWireSpeed 183
6.5.2 EffectofFeedRate 183
6.5.3 EffectofGrainDensity 184
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Contents ix
6.5.4 EffectofWireTension 184
6.6 Summary 184
References 185
PartIII WaferSurfacePreparationandManagement 189
7 Lapping 191
7.1 Introduction 191
7.2 FundamentalsofLappingandFAM 192
7.3 VariousConfigurationsandTypesofLappingOperation 195
7.3.1 Single-sidedLapping 200
7.3.2 Double-sidedLapping 201
7.3.3 Soft-padLapping 201
7.3.4 FurtherReferences 202
7.4 LappingandPreliminaryPlanarization 202
7.4.1 QualityDrivenNeedsforPreliminaryPlanarization 202
7.4.2 CostDrivenNeedsforPreliminaryPlanarization 203
7.5 TechnicalChallengesandAdvancesinLapping 204
7.5.1 TechnicalConsiderations 205
7.5.2 AdvancesinLapping 206
(cid:2) 7.6 Summary 206 (cid:2)
References 207
8 ChemicalMechanicalPolishing 209
8.1 Introduction 209
8.2 ChemicalMechanicalPolishing(CMP) 210
8.2.1 SchematicIllustrationoftheCMPProcessandSystem 210
8.2.2 MeasurementandEvaluationoftheSiliconWaferafterPolishing 213
8.2.3 SpecificationsforPolishedSiliconWafers 214
8.2.4 TypesofCMPProcesses 215
8.2.5 ChallengesofCMPTechnology 215
8.3 PolishingPadTechnology 215
8.3.1 PolishingPadConditioning 216
8.4 PolishingSlurryTechnology 217
8.5 EdgePolishing 218
8.5.1 FundamentalsofEdgePolishing 218
8.5.2 ChallengesofEdgePolishing 218
8.6 Summary 219
References 219
9 Grinding,EdgeGrinding,Etching,andSurfaceCleaning 223
9.1 Introduction 223
9.2 WaferGrindingforSurfaceProcessing 223
9.2.1 WaferGrindingMethods 223
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