Table Of ContentVISIBLE LIGHT
COMMUNICATION BASED
INDOOR LOCALIZATION
Mohsen Kavehrad and Reza Aminikashani
Visible Light
Communication Based
Indoor Localization
Visible Light
Communication Based
Indoor Localization
Mohsen Kavehrad
Reza Aminikashani
CRCPress
Taylor&FrancisGroup
6000BrokenSoundParkwayNW,Suite300
BocaRaton,FL33487-2742
(cid:13)c 2020byTaylor&FrancisGroup,LLC
CRCPressisanimprintofTaylor&FrancisGroup,anInformabusiness
NoclaimtooriginalU.S.Governmentworks
Printedonacid-freepaper
InternationalStandardBookNumber-13:978-1-138-61747-6(Hardback)
Thisbookcontainsinformationobtainedfromauthenticandhighlyregardedsources.Reasonableefforts
havebeenmadetopublishreliabledataandinformation,buttheauthorandpublishercannotassume
responsibilityforthevalidityofallmaterialsortheconsequencesoftheiruse.Theauthorsandpublishers
haveattemptedtotracethecopyrightholdersofallmaterialreproducedinthispublicationandapologize
tocopyrightholdersifpermissiontopublishinthisformhasnotbeenobtained.Ifanycopyrightmaterial
hasnotbeenacknowledgedpleasewriteandletusknowsowemayrectifyinanyfuturereprint.
ExceptaspermittedunderU.S.CopyrightLaw,nopartofthisbookmaybereprinted,reproduced,trans-
mitted,orutilizedinanyformbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafter
invented,includingphotocopying,microfilming,andrecording,orinanyinformationstorageorretrieval
system,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access
www.copyright.com(http://www.copyright.com/)orcontacttheCopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.(CCC),
222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923,978-750-8400.CCCisanot-for-profitorganizationthatpro-
videslicensesandregistrationforavarietyofusers.Fororganizationsthathavebeengrantedaphotocopy
licensebytheCCC,aseparatesystemofpaymenthasbeenarranged.
TrademarkNotice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarks,andare
usedonlyforidentificationandexplanationwithoutintenttoinfringe.
VisittheTaylor&FrancisWebsiteat
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
andtheCRCPressWebsiteat
http://www.crcpress.com
Dedication
MohsenKavehrad:
Tomyfamilyfortheirloveandsupport
RezaAminikashani:
Tomywife,Sepideh,andmydaughter,Eva.whenshewasnotbornyet
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Chapter1 IntroductionandOverview..............................................................1
Chapter2 FundamentalsofVisibleLightCommunication.............................5
2.1 SystemModel.........................................................................5
2.1.1 Transmitter.................................................................5
2.1.2 Receiver.....................................................................8
2.1.3 Channel....................................................................12
2.2 ModulationTechniques........................................................13
2.3 NoiseCharacteristic..............................................................14
Chapter3 PositioningAlgorithmsandSystems.............................................17
3.1 PositioningAlgorithms.........................................................17
3.1.1 Triangulation............................................................17
3.1.2 Lateration.................................................................18
3.1.2.1 Time-basedDistanceEstimation.............18
3.1.2.2 DistanceEstimationBasedonSignal
Attenuation..............................................20
3.1.3 Angulation................................................................20
3.1.4 SceneAnalysis.........................................................21
3.1.5 Proximity.................................................................22
3.2 IndoorPositioningSystems..................................................22
3.2.1 Assisted-GPS...........................................................22
3.2.2 Bluetooth..................................................................23
3.2.3 RadioFrequencyIdentification................................23
3.2.4 Geo-Magnetism........................................................24
3.2.5 Ultra-Wideband........................................................24
3.2.6 WirelessLocalAreaNetwork..................................25
3.2.7 InertialNavigationSystem......................................25
3.2.8 Zigbee......................................................................26
3.2.9 VisibleLightCommunication..................................26
Chapter4 VisibleLightPositioningSystems.................................................31
4.1 SystemConfigurationandChannelAccessMethod............31
4.1.1 TimeDivisionMultipleAccess...............................31
4.1.2 BasicFramedSlottedALOHA................................31
4.2 PositioningAlgorithmfor2-DScenario...............................34
vii
viii Contents
4.3 LinearLeastSquareEstimation............................................35
4.4 PositioningAlgorithmfora3-DScenario............................39
Chapter5 FilteringTechniquesinPositioning...............................................45
5.1 KalmanFilter........................................................................45
5.1.1 DerivationofKalmanFilter.....................................45
5.1.2 KalmanFilterin2-Dand3-DScenarios.................47
5.2 ParticleFilter........................................................................49
5.2.1 PrincipleofParticleFilter........................................49
5.2.2 ParticleFilterin2-Dand3-DScenarios..................50
5.3 GaussianMixtureSigma-PointParticleFilter......................51
5.3.1 Principle...................................................................52
5.3.2 GM-SPPFin2-Dand3-DScenarios.......................54
5.4 PositioningPerformanceandDiscussions............................56
Chapter6 Three-Dimensional Positioning Based on Nonlinear Estimation
andMultipleReceivers..................................................................61
6.1 3-DPositioningBasedonNonlinearEstimation..................61
6.1.1 TrustRegionReflectiveAlgorithm..........................61
6.1.2 3-DPositioningAlgorithm......................................62
6.1.3 SimulationandResults............................................64
6.2 3-DPositioningBasedonMultipleReceivers......................64
6.2.1 3-DPositioningAlgorithms.....................................65
6.2.1.1 ReceivedSignalStrengthMethod...........65
6.2.1.2 AngleofArrivalMethod.........................69
6.2.1.3 CombinedRSSandAoAUsing
MultipleReceivers...................................70
6.2.2 SimulationandResults............................................74
Chapter7 ImpactofMultipathReflections....................................................79
7.1 ImpulseResponse.................................................................79
7.2 DeterministicApproach........................................................81
7.3 MMCApproach....................................................................82
7.4 CDMMCMethod..................................................................83
7.5 AnalysisofImpulseResponse..............................................84
7.6 PowerIntensityDistributionAnalysis..................................89
7.7 PositioningAccuracy............................................................90
7.8 CalibrationApproaches........................................................93
7.8.1 NonlinearEstimation...............................................93
7.8.2 SelectionofLEDSignals.........................................98
7.8.3 DecreasingtheDistanceBetweenLEDBulbs.......100
Contents ix
Chapter8 OFDMBasedPositioningAlgorithm..........................................105
8.1 OFDMinCommunication..................................................105
8.2 OFDMforVLC..................................................................106
8.2.1 PAM-DMT.............................................................107
8.2.2 DCO-OFDM..........................................................108
8.2.3 ACO-OFDM..........................................................109
8.3 OFDMinVLCpositioning.................................................110
8.3.1 SystemModel........................................................111
8.3.2 PositioningAlgorithm............................................114
8.4 SimulationandAnalysis.....................................................115
8.4.1 PerformanceComparisonofSingle-and
MulticarrierModulationSchemes.........................116
8.4.2 EffectofSignalPoweronthePositioning
Accuracy................................................................121
8.4.3 Effect of Modulation Order on the Positioning
Accuracy................................................................123
8.4.4 EffectofNumberofSubcarriersonthe
PositioningAccuracy.............................................123
Chapter9 SensorFusion..............................................................................129
9.1 MethodsandGoals.............................................................130
9.2 InertialNavigationSystem.................................................131
9.2.1 StablePlatformSystems........................................131
9.2.2 Strap-downSystems...............................................131
9.3 InertialSensors...................................................................133
9.3.1 MEMSAccelerometer...........................................134
9.3.2 MEMSGyroscope.................................................135
9.4 RealizationbyKalmanFilter..............................................135
9.5 SimulationandResults.......................................................137
Glossary................................................................................................................143
Index......................................................................................................................147
