UV Radiation in Global Climate Change: Measurements, Modeling and Effects on Ecosystems

565 Pages·2010·10.086 MB·English

by  Julia Lee-Taylor, Sasha Madronich (auth.), Wei Gao, James R. Slusser, Daniel L. Schmoldt (eds.)

Wei Gao
Daniel L. Schmoldt
James R. Slusser
UV Radiation in Global Climate Change
Measurements, Modeling and Effects on Ecosystems
Wei Gao
Daniel L. Schmoldt
James R. Slusser
UV Radiation in Global
Climate Change
Measurements, Modeling and Effects on
Ecosystems
With 176 figures
(cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3)
Editors
Wei Gao Daniel L. Schmoldt
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory Cooperative State Research
Colorado State University, USA Education & Extension Service
E-mail: [email protected] Waterfront Centre, Ste.3422
800 9th Street SW
Washington DC 20024, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
James R.Slusser
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
ISBN 978-7-302-20360-5
Tsinghua University Press, Beijing
ISBN 978-3-642-03312-4 e-ISBN 978-3-642-03313-1
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009931054
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Wei Gao
Daniel L. Schmoldt
James R. Slusser
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UV Radiation in Global
Climate Change
Measurements, Modeling and Effects on
Ecosystems
With 176 figures
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Preface
Over the past three decades, the scientific community has realized the urgency of
obtaining a better understanding of the interaction between the earth’s atmosphere/
biosphere and the sun’s radiant energy. Most of the research has focused on the
radiant energy balances in the solar and infrared regions of the spectrum, and the
way these energy flows affect the climate. During this same time frame, in a
related arena, a smaller group of dedicated individuals has concentrated on the
role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation as it affects the overall welfare of the planet.
Although comprising only a small fraction of the radiation balance that may play
a role in global climate change over the next centuries, UV radiation has the
capacity to cause direct and more immediate harm to virtually all living organisms
and especially to human health. Cumulative high doses of UV radiation are
considered a major causal factor in the development of skin cancer and cataracts.
Ultraviolet radiation can weaken the human immune system, and can also affect
crop production and ocean bio-productivity.
Concerns about the increased levels of UV-B radiation reaching the earth’s
surface have led to the development of ground- and space-based measurement
programs to provide long-term records of its levels. Accurate long-term
measurements are difficult to obtain, especially when limited to the bandwidth
regions that contain the most harmful solar photons. A core of concerned
scientists from across the globe realizes that much work is needed in quantifying
the harmful radiation levels and defining their adverse effects. In assessing the
effects of UV-B radiation, it is important to realize the complexity of the
interactions of living organisms that cause adverse responses with radiant energy
directly, as well as in combination with other climate stressors, such as drought,
increased temperatures, and CO .
2
This book addresses work that has been conducted throughout the world over
the past three decades, such as: (1) current efforts for establishing a climatology of
UV radiation; (2) modeling the UV component and its impact on ecosystems, human
health, and related economic and social implications; (3) new developments in
i
UV instrumentation, advances in calibration (ground-based and satellite-based)
measurement methods; and (4) the effects of global climate change on UV
radiation. All chapters, including the review chapters, have been solicited from
renowned scientists in their research fields of UV radiation, meteorology, the
environment, and ecosystems. They have presented their work based on research
at the global scale, taking into consideration possible future developments. Many
new techniques and methods developed from space-ground measurements,
mathematical modeling, and remote sensing have recently become available, yet
have not previously been presented. This book will be a useful source of reference
for undergraduate and graduate students who are involved in the study of global
change, environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, and agricultural
and forest sciences. It will also benefit scientists in related research fields, as well
as professors, policy makers, and the general public.
As editors of this book, we wish to express our great appreciation for the
contributions of many individuals. We are indebted to the over 50 authors and
co-authors within the scientific community who have shared their expertise and
contributed much time and effort in the preparation of the book chapters. We also
wish to give credit to the numerous funding sources promoting the scientific
research performed, and thus the valuable findings shared by the authors. We
express our appreciation to the many reviewers and expert scientists who took
the time to offer valuable comments and suggestions for the improvement of the
book chapters. We acknowledge the management and editorial assistance of Laurie
Richards and the technical support of Jonathan Straube of the Natural Resource
Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University and Tsinghua University Press and
Springer-Verlag. We especially want to express our appreciation for the support of
the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES) of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the USDA UV-B Monitoring and
Research Program at Colorado State University. The efforts of many individuals
including Drs. John Moore, John Davis, Steve Liu, Ni-Bin Chang, Mr. George
Janson, and Ms. Rita Deike are appreciated.
Dr. Wei Gao
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO
Dr. Daniel Schmoldt
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C.
May 2009
ii
Contents
List of Contributors..........................................................................................xiii
1(cid:3) A Climatology of UV Radiation, 1979–2000, 65S–65N............................1
1.1(cid:3) Introduction............................................................................................1
1.2(cid:3) Method....................................................................................................2
1.3(cid:3) Results....................................................................................................6
1.3.1(cid:3) Satellite-Derived UV Climatologies...........................................6
1.3.2(cid:3) Comparison with Ground-Based Measurements......................14
1.3.3(cid:3) Discussion of Uncertanties.......................................................16
1.4(cid:3) Conclusions..........................................................................................17
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................17
References.....................................................................................................18
2(cid:3) Balancing the Risks and Benefits of Ultraviolet Radiation......................21
2.1(cid:3) Introduction..........................................................................................22
2.2(cid:3) Long Term Changes in UV ...............................................................22
Ery
2.3(cid:3) Geographical Variability in UV ........................................................23
Ery
2.4(cid:3) Peak UV................................................................................................24
2.4.1(cid:3) Peak UV Index..........................................................................24
2.4.2(cid:3) Peak UV Daily Dose.................................................................28
2.5(cid:3) Comparing Weighting Functions for Erythema and Vitamin D............29
2.6(cid:3) Seasonal and Diurnal Variation of UV and UV ...........................31
Ery VitD
2.7(cid:3) Global Climatologies of UV and UV ..........................................33
Ery VitD
2.8(cid:3) Relationship Between UV and UV ..............................................36
VitD Ery
2.9(cid:3) Production of Vitamin D from Sunlight...............................................38
2.10(cid:3) Calculation of Optimal Times for Exposure to Sunlight....................38
2.11(cid:3) An Inconsistency................................................................................42
2.12(cid:3) Conclusions........................................................................................44
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................45
References.....................................................................................................45
3(cid:3) Climatology of Ultraviolet Radiation at High Latitudes Derived from
Measurements of the National Science Foundation’s Ultraviolet Spec-
tral Irradiance Monitoring Network..........................................................48
3.1(cid:3) Introduction..........................................................................................49
iii
3.2(cid:3) Data Analysis........................................................................................51
3.2.1(cid:3) Data...........................................................................................51
3.2.2(cid:3) Establishment of Climatologies................................................52
3.2.3(cid:3) Estimates of Historical UV Indices...........................................52
3.3(cid:3) UV Index Climatology.........................................................................56
3.3.1(cid:3) South Pole.................................................................................56
3.3.2(cid:3) McMurdo Station......................................................................57
3.3.3(cid:3) Palmer Station...........................................................................59
3.3.4(cid:3) Ushuaia.....................................................................................60
3.3.5(cid:3) San Diego..................................................................................60
3.3.6(cid:3) Barrow......................................................................................61
3.4(cid:3) Climatology of UV-A Irradiance..........................................................62
3.5(cid:3) Comparison of Radiation Levels at Network Sites...............................65
3.6(cid:3) Conclusions and Outlook......................................................................69
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................70
References.....................................................................................................70
4(cid:3) UV Solar Radiation in Polar Regions: Consequences for the
Environment and Human Health...............................................................73
4.1(cid:3) Introduction..........................................................................................74
4.2(cid:3) Networks and Databanks......................................................................76
4.3(cid:3) Impact of Solar UV on the Environment..............................................79
4.3.1(cid:3) Effect of the Environment on Solar UV....................................85
4.4(cid:3) Impact of Solar UV on Human Health.................................................88
4.4.1(cid:3) Information and Protection Programs.......................................92
4.4.2(cid:3) Dosimetry, UV Modeling, and Instruments..............................93
4.5(cid:3) Concluding Remarks............................................................................98
References.....................................................................................................99
5(cid:3) Changes in Ultraviolet and Visible Solar Irradiance 1979 to 2008........106
5.1(cid:3) Introduction........................................................................................106
5.2(cid:3) Instrumentation...................................................................................112
5.3(cid:3) Detection of Long-Term Change........................................................121
5.3.1(cid:3) Radiation Amplification Factor...............................................122
5.3.2(cid:3) Different Definitions of RAF..................................................125
5.3.3(cid:3) Estimating UV Trends: Discussion.........................................126
5.3.4(cid:3) Reduction of UV Irradiance by Clouds and Aerosols.............128
5.3.5(cid:3) Stokes Derivation of C (cid:32)(1(cid:16)R)/(1(cid:16)R )..............................130
T G
5.3.6(cid:3) UV Absorption........................................................................132
5.3.7(cid:3) Estimating Zonal Average UV Change...................................132
5.3.8(cid:3) Estimating UV Trends: Satellites............................................133
5.3.9(cid:3) Estimating UV Trends: Ground-Based...................................138
5.4(cid:3) UV in the Polar Regions.....................................................................139
iv