Table Of ContentStudies in Latin American
Ethnohistory &. Archaeology
Joyce Marcus, General Editor
Volume I A Fuego y Sangre: Early Zapotec Imperialism in the Cuicatlan Canada, Oaxaca,
by Elsa M. Redmond. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of
Michigan, No. 16 (1983). $15.
Volume II Irrigation & the Cuicatec Ecosystem: A Study of Agriculture & Civilization in North
Central Oaxaca, by Joseph W. Hopkins III. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropol
ogy, University of Michigan, No. 17 (1984). $15.
Volume III Aztec City States, by Mary G. Hodge. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology,
University of Michigan, No. 18 (1984). $15.
Volume IV Conflicts over Coca Fields in XVIth-Century Peru, by Maria Rostworowski de Diez
Canseco. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.
21 (1988). $19.50
Volume V Tribal and Chiefly Warfare in South America, by Elsa M. Redmond. Memoirs of the
Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 28 (1994).
MEMOIRS OF THE MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
NUMBER 28
Studies in Latin American
Ethnohistory &.. Archaeology
Joyce Marcus, General Editor
Volume V
Tribal and Chiefly Warfare
in South America
by
Elsa M. Redmond
ANN ARBOR
1994
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Introduction to Volume V
by Joyce Marcus
This volume, the fifth in our series entitled Studies in Latin American Ethnohistory & Archaeol
ogy, is the product of more than a decade of research by Elsa Redmond. Redmond has been amassing
ethnohistoric, ethnographic, and archaeological data on warfare in Latin America, particularly north
ern South America. Taken together, those data have increasingly convinced her that warfare played
a major role in the cultures of many tribes and chiefdoms throughout the region. When Redmond
compared and evaluated those data, she began to see important differences between tribal and chiefly
warfare, as well as striking similarities shared by groups at the same sociopolitical level. Specifying
these differences and similarities is one of Redmond's most valuable contributions (see Chapter 4).
In this volume we learn of tribal warfare among the Jfvaro and Yanomamo, chiefly warfare among
groups in Colombia and Panama, and the archaeological evidence for similar warfare patterns from
a wide range of sites in the New World. We also see Redmond tackle the role of warfare in the
evolution of chiefdoms. She suggests that warfare spurred the development of chiefdoms by turning
some renowned warriors into powerful chiefs (see Chapter 7).
To maximize the data of northern South America and lower Central America, Redmond had to
wear three different hats-that of ethnologist, ethnohistorian, and archaeologist. Wearing her eth
nologist's hat, she surveyed the extensive ethnographic literature for northern South America, focus
ing on several themes: the motivations for warfare; the preparations for battle; the weapons used; the
timing and seasonality of battles; the location of battles; the range of associated rites (such as
headshrinking, ritual bathing, making of poison to tip arrows, cannibalism); the injuries and losses
in human life on both sides; and the gains (booty, captives, land, wives).
Wearing the hat of an ethnohistorian, Redmond searched sixteenth- and seventeenth-century
documents with the idea of collecting detailed, eyewitness reports of groups who had only recently
come into contact with the Spaniards. Those ethnohistoric data are extremely important, since a few
scholars (e.g., Ferguson 1990, 1992) have attributed the region's endemic warfare to contact with
Europeans. Redmond's data and those of others (Carneiro 1981, 1991; Spencer 1991) strongly
suggest such conflict is prehispanic.
Redmond's ethnographic and ethnohistoric studies reveal dimensions of warfare that the archae
ological record does not preserve-the range of motives, the size of the military forces, the number
of losses, the location of various pre-battle and post-battle rites, the number of women taken, the
seasonality of warfare, and so forth. Redmond shows that South American tribesmen plan their raids
for the dry season, since intervillage travel is more difficult during the rainy season. They even go
so far as to conduct raids on enemy villages at the end of the dry season in order to postpone the
enemy's counterraid until the following dry season. Although archaeologists often find it difficult
to document the seasonality of warfare, a preference for dry season warfare can also be shown for
the ancient Maya, because sufficient hieroglyphic texts exist for certain centuries (Marcus 1992:430-
433). Without such texts, the task is much tougher.
v
Finally, wearing the hat of an archaeologist, Redmond began to consider how archaeologists could
improve their research designs to increase the likelihood of recovering more information about
warfare. She proposes a comprehensive research design that focuses on increasingly larger units of
study-from the feature to the household, to the community, to the region, and to the interregional
level. The current strategy of excavating mounds or making test pits only in the very center of a site
would rarely reveal the kinds of evidence she has documented with ethnohistoric and ethnographic
data. Archaeologists often fail to look for features on the periphery of sites, such as palisades of
wooden logs, cane, vines, and lianas which form a ring circumscribing the settlement. Furthermore,
archaeologists have virtually no methods for documenting battles that took place in between settle
ments. Sadly, survey is unlikely to recover such data.
Ethnologists and ethnohistorians have much to learn from this book because of its strong compara
tive approach and its integration of different lines of evidence. For their part, archaeologists will
profit from the following kinds of evidence that Redmond presents:
(1) Boundary markers, buffer zones, or no-man's-lands. When extensive regions have been
surveyed and mapped, it has sometimes been possible to locate boundaries between social and
political units (e.g., DeBoer 1981; Redmond 1983). Such boundaries may be completely human
made, or they may be minimal modifications of the natural landscape.
(2) Fortifications. These include moats, deep hidden trenches filled with sharpened stakes set in
their floors, timber palisades lashed together by vines, or earthen walls (Spencer and Redmond 1992;
Spencer 1991). There may be inner and outer palisades, or concentric rings of defensive features,
increasing the chances of recovering such constructions.
(3) Burial and skeletal data. Having a large skeletal population for study is an advantage.
Evidence of pre-mortem and postmortem trauma are both important. Healed wounds and fractures
might indicate participation in battles. Unhealed fractures such as parry fractures and skull fractures
might indicate death was caused in battle. Postmortem treatment, such as cut marks on the cervical
vertebrae, might indicate decapitation. Keeping skulls and mandibles as trophies is also known. If
many victims of war were carried off by the enemy, left on the battlefield, or buried outside the site
being excavated, victims of warfare may be underestimated.
(4) Weapons. Chipped-stone projectiles used as arrow, spear, or dart points, stone axes, and
broadswords studded with obsidian blades are potentially recoverable. If made of wood, cane, or
vegetal fiber, weapons such as lances, spears, arrows with feathers, clubs, and slings would be
difficult to recover.
(5) Settlement pattern changes. Abrupt changes in the location of sites, such as a shift of all sites
from the valley floor to defensible hilltop locations, may suggest concern for defense and the threat
of warfare. The abrupt abandonment of many houses in a village with no evidence of reoccupation
is another example (e.g., Redmond 1983).
(6) Burned buildings or sites. Widespread burning of several scattered and noncontiguous build
ings; evidence of whole artifacts, whole vessels, and food discarded and abandoned on the floors of
burned houses might be recoverable. Unburied skeletons, lying abandoned on house floors, could
be further evidence.
(7) Abrupt or drastic changes in the cultural sequence. The complete interruption of local ceramic
or architectural styles, especially if they are replaced by those of another polity, has been used to
infer warfare in various parts of the world (e.g., Spencer 1982; Redmond 1983; Webster 1993).
(8) Iconography. Artistic scenes that show weapons, warriors fighting, men with warpaint, nude
or bound prisoners, and so on, have been used as evidence of warfare. At the chiefly level, we might
expect more of these depictions because of the endemic rivalry and competition between chiefs.
Stone monument galleries displaying hundreds of nude and mutilated prisoners, such as those
constructed at Cerro Sechfn in Peru and Monte Alban in Mexico, come to mind.
This volume should serve as a catalyst for scholars interested in the diversity of prestate warfare
patterns, and as a challenge to archaeologists concerned with the role of warfare in the evolution of
complex societies.
vi
Bibliography
Carneiro, Robert L.
1981 The chiefdom: precursor of the state. In: The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones
and Robert R. Kautz, pp. 37-79. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1991 The nature of the chiefdom as revealed by evidence from the Cauca Valley of Colombia. In: Profiles in Cultural
Evolution: Papers from a Conference in Honor of Elman R. Service, edited by A. Terry Rambo and Kathleen
Gillogly, pp. 167-190. Anthropological Papers of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 85.
Ann Arbor.
DeBoer, Warren R.
1981 Buffer zones in the cultural ecology of aboriginal Amazonia: an ethnohistorical approach. American Antiquity
46:364-377.
Ferguson, R. Brian
1990 Blood of the Leviathan: western contact and warfare in Amazonia. American Ethnologist 17(2):237-257.
1992 A savage encounter: western contact and the Yanomarni war complex. In: War in the Tribal Zone, edited by R. Brian
Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, pp. 199-227. Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research.
Marcus, Joyce
1992 Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and History in Four Ancient Civilizations. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Redmond, Elsa M.
1983 A Fuego y Sangre: Early Zapotec Imperialism in the Cuicatlan Caiiada, Oaxaca. Studies in Latin American Ethnohis
tory & Archaeology, Volume I. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 16. Ann
Arbor.
Spencer, Charles S.
1982 The Cuicatlan Caiiada and Monte Alban: A Study of Primary State Formation. New York: Academic Press.
1991 Coevolution and the development of Venezuelan chiefdoms. In: Profiles in Cultural Evolution: Papers from a
Conference in Honor of Elman R. Service, edited by A. Terry Rambo and Kathleen Gillogly, pp. 137-165.
Anthropological Papers of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 85. Ann Arbor.
Spencer, Charles S. and Elsa M. Redmond
1992 Prehispanic chiefdoms of the western Venezuelan llanos. World Archaeology 24(1):134-157.
Webster, David
1993 The study of Maya warfare: what it tells us about the Maya and what it tells us about Maya Archaeology. In: Lowland
Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 415-444.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.
vii
Contents
Introduction to Volume V ......................................................... v
Figures ... .......................... '" ......................................... x
Tables .... .... , ................................................................ xi
Acknowledgments ............................................................... xii
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................... 1
Uncentralized tribes and centralized chiefdoms ........................................ 1
Chapter 2 Tribal Warfare Patterns ................................................ 3
Jivaro Warfare ................................................................. 3
The nature and objectives of warfare ............................................. 3
Preparations for war .......................................................... 3
Organization of war parties ..................................................... 5
Warfare strategies, weapons, and tactics .......................................... 5
Defensive strategies ........................................................... 8
Post-war rituals and practices .................................................. 10
Mortuary treatment .......................................................... 12
Y anomam6 Warfare ............................................................ 15
The nature and objectives of warfare ............................................ 15
Preparations for war ......................................................... 15
Organization of war parties .................................................... 16
Warfare strategies, weapons, and tactics ......................................... 17
Defensive strategies .......................................................... 19
Post-war rituals and practices .................................................. 21
Mortuary treatment .......................................................... 22
Chapter 3 Chiefly Warfare Patterns .............................................. 25
Warfare in the Cauca Valley ..................................................... 25
The nature and objectives of warfare ............................................ 25
Preparations for war ......................................................... 27
Organization of war parties .................................................... 27
Warfare strategies, weapons, and tactics ......................................... 28
Defensive strategies .......................................................... 29
Post-war rituals and practices .................................................. 30
Mortuary treatment .......................................................... 31
Tairona Warfare ............................................................... 32
The nature and objectives of warfare ............................................ 32
Preparations for war ......................................................... 32
Organization of war parties .................................................... 34
Warfare strategies, weapons, and tactics ......................................... 34
Defensive strategies .......................................................... 36
Post-war rituals and practices .................................................. 37
Mortuary treatment .......................................................... 37
viii
Warfare among the Panamanian Chiefdoms ......................................... 37
The nature and objectives of warfare ............................................ 39
Preparations for war . . ....................................................... 40
Organization of war parties .................................................... 41
Warfare strategies, weapons, and tactics ......................................... 42
Defensive strategies .......................................................... 45
Post-war rituals and practices .................................................. 46
Mortuary treatment .......................................................... 48
Chapter 4 Tribal Versus Chiefly Warfare .......................................... 51
Objectives .................................................................... 51
Organization .................................................................. 51
Pre-War Rituals ............................................................... 52
Offensive Tactics .............................................................. 53
Defensive Tactics .............................................................. 54
Post-War Rituals .............................................................. 55
Funerary Treatment of Warriors .................................................. 56
Chapter 5 The Archaeology of Tribal Warfare ..................................... 57
Investigating Warfare Archaeologically ............................................ 57
Archaeology of Tribal Warfare ................................................... 59
Preparations for war ......................................................... 59
Pre-war rituals .............................................................. 62
Warfare tactics .............................................................. 62
Defensive tactics ............................................................ 69
Post-war rituals ............................................................. 74
Mortuary treatment .......................................................... 79
Chapter 6 The Archaeology of Chiefly Warfare ..................................... 83
Preparations for War ........................................................... 83
Arrow Poisons ................................................................ 84
Pre-War Rituals ............................................................... 87
Organization of War Parties ...................................................... 89
Warfare Tactics ............................................................... 93
Defensive Tactics .............................................................. 96
Post-war Rituals .............................................................. 102
Ritual Cannibalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Display of Human War Trophies ................................................. 108
Mortuary Treatment ........................................................... 109
Chapter 7 Conclusion ......................................................... 117
The Authority of Tribal War Leaders and Warring Chiefs ............................. 117
The Ideological Motives of Warfare .............................................. 118
The Alternating Roles of Warfare and Exchange .................................... 120
Warfare and the Development of Centralized Societies ............................... 123
Sources of power ........................................................... 124
Legitimation of power ....................................................... 127
Favorable conditions ........................................................ 128
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Bibliography .................................................................. 133
Notes ......................................................................... 143
Appendix: Author's Translations of Spanish Text ................................... 145
ix
