traditional agriculture and its meaning on the lives of farming communities

197 Pages·2010·9.28 MB·English

TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE AND ITS MEANING IN THE LIVES OF A
FARMING COMMUNITY: THE CASE OF EMBO

KETSHOGILE PAULINE MARAGELO

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

IN THE DISCIPLINE OF COMMUNITY RESOURCES
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES & AGRIBUSINESS
UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL
PIETERMARITZBURG

MARCH 2008
ABSTRACT

For the majority of rural people, agricultural activities continue to be one of their
main livelihood strategies. Production of food crops is not dependent on any formally
acquired knowledge of farming but is solely based on indigenous agricultural
knowledge passed from generation to generation through experience and careful
observations. Resource-poor farmers, especially in rural areas, follow traditional
farming methods to produce their food crops and these are specifically tailored to suit
their environments.

Embo is located in rural KwaZulu-Natal and falls under Mkhambathini municipality.
The area is characterised by small-holder farmers who are mainly Ezemvelo Farmers
Organisation (EFO) members. The purpose of this study was to review the farming
practices followed by farmers in respect of food crop production and secondly to
understand what influences the continual practice of such farming practices among
rural farming communities of Embo in KwaZulu-Natal especially the EFO farmers.
The study looked at what farmers see as traditional agriculture. A combination of
qualitative and quantitative methods was used for the study. Data collection methods
included participatory observations, semi structured face-to-face interviews and focus
group discussions.

The study found that farmers are happy to follow traditional farming methods to
produce their food crops. Traditional farming tools such as the hoe and animal
traction are the main implements used to prepare land. Household members are the
main source of farm labour with men mainly responsible for ploughing activities
while the bulk of planting, weeding and harvesting activities is the responsibility of
women. Cropping patterns include intercropping and crop rotation with common
crops being amadumbe, beans, maize and sweet potatoes. The majority of these crops
are produced for both subsistence and commercial reasons. Amadumbe is an
important commercial crop produced organically.

Crop protection against pests is done through traditional methods where farmers mix
some concoctions made from locally available resource in order to minimise losses.
Kraal manure is the main soil fertility strategy followed by farmers. Landrace seeds
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are the main seed type used by the farmers. Local seed sources include own
production and asking from other farmers. Crops with good qualities are selected in
fields and maintained as seeds, which are then stored separate from those for home
consumption. Harvesting is mainly done manually and for important crops such as
tubers with short shelf lives, harvested through piecemeal methods.

Farmers are able to generate some income from their efforts and this contributes to
local economies and household food security. Farmers value their farming methods
and see their farming as efficient despite challenges. There is a need to consider
developing labour support groups in order to ease the burden of labour especially by
women. In view of the importance of traditional farming in the lives of rural people, it
is important that agricultural scientists and extension officers take into consideration
the knowledge farmers already have so as to develop technologies suitable for
farmers’ environments.
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DECLARATION

I, KETSHOGILE PAULINE MARAGELO............ declare that:

(i) The research reported in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is
my original research.

(ii) This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any
other university.

(iii) This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other
information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from
those persons.

(iv) This thesis does not contain other author’s writing, unless specifically
acknowledged as being sourced from other authors. Where other written
sources have been quoted, then:
a) their words have been re-written but the general information
attributed to them has been referenced;
b) where their exact words have been used, their writing has been
placed inside quotation marks, and referenced.

(v) This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted
from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being
detailed in the thesis and in the References sections.

Signed: ……………………………………… Date …………………………

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DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my late father, Ramonyenyane Juluis Maragelo, for he
always believed in my potential.

My two late sisters, Granny and Nene, you were my best friends. I wish you lived to
see my success.

The rest of my family for being patient while I studied.

To my supervisor Prof JM Green, she saw the potential in me and made me what I am
today.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank God for His mercy and keeping me this far. Without Him my
life could be a mess. Secondly I would like to thank the following people;

My family: especially my three children, Natshe, Lesego and Bokang for their love
and support throughout my studies. Their presence in my life has been like wind
beneath my wings.

My best friends: Ida Mongwegeloa for her loyalty as a friend and her continued
spiritual and moral support throughout my studies. Nokuthula Chitwayo for her
amazing loyalty as a friend.

Without the following people my studies could not have been a success; Karen
Caister, Charity Maphumulo, Mfundo Ndlovu and more especially EFO farmers for
allowing me to conduct my study with them. Denvor Naidoo, Milane Selwe, Esther
Mungai and my entire friends around the world.

To my fiancée Thokozani Hlabisa thank you so much for the immeasurable love and
support you gave me through this difficult study time. Without your support I would
have not made it.

It would be a crime not to mention my Supervisor Professor Maryann Green, for her
guidance and motherly love. Her support and encouragement helped me to complete
this study.

I would also like to thank Professor AT Modi for his support and SANPAD for
funding this study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………...i
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………….....iii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………vi
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………xi
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………...xii
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………....xiv
LIST OF ACRONYMS……………………………………………………………xvi

CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING………………………...1
1.1 Importance of the study..……………………………………………………….1
1.2 Statement of the problem…………………………………………………….. 3
1.2.1 Research sub-problems……………………………………….................4
1.3. Conceptual frame-work………………………………………………………. .5
1.4. Study Limits……………………………………………………..……………....6
1.5 Definition of concepts…………………………………………………………...7
1.6 Methodology…………………………………………………………………….8
1.6.1 Population…………………………………………………………………..8
1.6.2 Sampling……………………………………………………………………8
1.6.3 Data collection……………………………………………………………...8
1.6.4 Instrumentation……………………………………………………………..9
1.6.5 Data analysis………………………………………………………………..9
1.7 Study assumptions……………………………………………………….……..9
1.8 Dissemination of findings………………………………………………..……10
1.9 Organisation of the thesis…………………………………………………….10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………...……..11
2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………..……..11
2.1 Socio-economic factors of traditional agriculture …………...…….………..13
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2.1.1 Social contributions of small-holder agriculture………………...……….13
2.1.2 Contribution of small-holder agriculture to local economies……………14
2.1.3 Ecological consideration of small-holder agriculture…………….…......15
2.2 Socio-ecological factors of traditional agriculture………………………...…16
2.2.1 Traditional agriculture as a generic farming system….…………………...16
2.3 Features of traditional agriculture……………………………………………17
2.3.1 Agro-ecological food production methods……………………………….18
2.3.2 Reliance on manual farming implements………… ……………………23
2.3.3 Reliance on indigenous knowledge………………………………………26
2.3.4 Reliance on human labour and energy use……………………………….32
2.3.5 Subsistence orientation……………………………………………………36
2.3.6 Features of Modern agriculture……………………………………….......37
2.4 Efficiency of Traditional agriculture…………………………………..…..…..38
2.4.1 Sustainability…………………………………………………………......38
2.4.2 Productivity…………………………………………………………….....39
2.4.3 Equity………………………………………………………………….. ...39
2.4.4 Stability…………………………………………………………………..40
2.5 Empirical studies conducted with traditional farming systems…….……….40
2.5.1 Patterns and determinants of agricultural systems in the Chittagong hill
tracts of Bangladesh……………………………………………………………40
2.5.2 Local crop genetic resource utilization and management in Gindeberet,
western central Ethiopia……………………………………………………….41
2.5.3 Local bean system………………………………………………………….41
2.5.4 Indigenous knowledge systems and the conversation of small grain seeds:
A case of Sangwe communal lands of Chiredzi in Zimbabwe………………....42
2.5.5 Gender differentiation among farmers in the agricultural sector in Benquet,
Phillipines……………………………………………………………………....42
2.5.6 Farmers’ perception on socio-economic constraints and coping strategies
in crop production Mopipi, Botswana………..……………………………….42
2.5.7 What do subsistence farmers know about indigenous crop and organic
farming? A preliminary experience in KwaZulu-Natal …….............................43
Summary…………………………………………………………………………….43

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CHAPTER THREE; AREA OF STUDY AND SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….46
3.1 Mkhambathini local municipality…………………………………………….46
3.1.1 Population……………………………………………………….………...46
3.1.2 Topography……………………………………………………………..…47
3.1.3 Climate…………………………………………………………………....47
3.1.4 Agriculture…………………………………………………………….…47
3.2 General information about Embo………………………………………………...48
3.3 Background to Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation…………………………………48

CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………...50
4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………...……………..50
4.1 Research design………………………………………………………………...50
4.2 Sampling…………………………………………………………………………51
4.2.1 Sampling process procedure………………………………………………51
4.3 Data collection process……………………………..…………………………..53
4.3.1 Participant observation……………………………………………………53
4.3.2 Interviews………………………………………………………………...55
4.3.3 Focus group discussion…………………………………………………..57
4.4 Instrumentation………………………………..……………………………….59
4.4.1 Field notes………………………………………………………………...59
4.4.2 Interview guide……………………………………………………………60
4.4.3 Discussion guide…………………………………………………………..61
4.5 Data analysis…………………………………………………………...……….61
4.5.1 Qualitative data analysis…………………………………………………...61
4.5.2 Quantitative data analysis…………………………………………………62

CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS…………......63
5.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..63
5.1 Demographic data of respondents……………………………………………..63
5.1.1 Farmers……………………………………..………………………………63
5.2 Farming classification by farmers……………………………………………..65
5.2.1 Farming knowledge acquisition methods………………………………….65
5.2.2 Farming classifications…………………………………………………….66
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5.2.3 Land preparation and implements………………………………………….68
5.2.4 Labour distribution of farming activities……………………………………73
5.3 Cropping patterns and common crops produced…………………………….78
5.3.1 Intercropping……………………………………………………………….78
5.3.2 Crop rotation………………………………………………...………...……82
5.3.3 Mono-cropping……………………………..………………………………84
5.3.4 Agro forestry……………………………………………...………………..85
5.4 Soil management……………………………………..………………………...87
5.4.1 Soil colour……………………………………..……………………………88
5.4.2 Soil texture………………………………………...………………………..88
5.4.3 Soil fertility management………………………………………………..…89
5.5 Seeds acquisition, storage methods…………………………………………...96
5.5.1 Land races…………………………………………………………………...96
5.5.2 Improved varieties…………………………………………………………..98
5.5.3 Produce own seeds………………………………………………………….99
5.5.4 Ask from neighbours……………………………………………………….100
5.5.5 Purchase seeds……………………………………………………………...101
5.5.6 Harvesting methods………………………………………………………...102
5.6 Socio-economic factors of farming practices………………………………..105
5.6.1 Factors influencing farming activities………………..……………………105
5.6.2 Income from farming produce……………………………………………..106
5.6.3 Farming reasons and cash crops…………………………………………...107
Summary………………………………………………………………...…………112

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………...114
6.0 Summary……………………………………………………………………… 114
6.1 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………….116
6.1.1 Conclusions for sub-problem one……………………………...……...…...116
6.1.2 Conclusions for sub-problem two…….………………………...…………117
6.1.3 Conclusions for sub-problem three…………………………………..........118
6.2 Recommendations for the study………………………………………………119
6.2.1 Recommendation for farmers………………………………………………119
6.2.2 Recommendations for extension officers and agricultural scientist………..119
6.2.3 Recommendations for improving the study………………………………120
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