Title God, Divinities and Ancestors

33 Pages·2017·2.17 MB·English

TITLE:
God, Divinities and Ancestors : For
the Positive Representation of a
"Religious Plurality" in Bugis
Society, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
AUTHOR(S):
Hamonic, Gilbert
CITATION:
Hamonic, Gilbert. God, Divinities and Ancestors : For the Positive Representation of a "Religious Plurality" in Bugis
Society, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. 東南アジア研究 1991, 29(1): 3-34
ISSUE DATE:
1991-06
URL:
http://hdl.handle.net/2433/56435
RIGHT:
Southeast Asian Studies, Vo1.29, No.1, June 1991
God, Divinities and Ancestors.
For the Positive Representation of a "Religious Plurality"
in Bugis Society, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
Gilbert HAMONIC*
Introduction
An Apprehension of a "Religious Plurality." Some Points of Methodology
To deal with the religious thinking and The second theoretical paradox is that not
"imaginaire" of the Bugis society, situated in only are the concepts of "monotheism" and
South Sulawesi, as presented here is first and "polytheism" contradictory in their terminol
foremost paradoxical. But under a certain ogy, but they are presented again respectively
light, it is also scandalous, and this is shown as synchronic totalities. And these synchronic
by the sole fact ofjuxtaposing the notions of totalities, the former being a centralising force
"God," "divinities" and "ancestors" in a soci and the latter being a differentiating one, serve
ety which, in the whole Indonesian archipel as labels for religious doctrines set up in
ago, appears to be one of the most "fervent" systems. Now, such systems, which can cer
(the terminology here is fanatic or panatik tainly contain dichotomies, logical conflicts,
with a positive meaning) in the Muslim reli functional complimentarities or hierarchies,
gion. At best, the use ofthe concept of"poly always offer their own point of view like
theism" would seem legitimate with regard to flatlands, sorts of harmonious oases where
an ancient or lost state of the Bugis society, history, whatever its course, hardly leave a
being before its "official" conversion to the trace.
"monotheism" ofIslam in the first years ofthe As a matter of fact, with the Bugis, first of
seven!eenth century (see Noorduyn, J.[1972J). all, we find ourselves confronted by what is
However, if this work is put forward as the best termed "prolific religious thinking," that
reconstruction ofthe plurality ofthe history of is to say by a society whose universe is
Bugis religious thinking, its research data is populated throughout with entities more or
just as much historic as ethnographic, and less vague and anonymous (toalusu', "subtle
refers almost exclusively to a mentality reso spirits," totenrita, "invisible beings," torilan
lutely anchored in the present. gi', "celestial beings," toriolo', "beings from
long ago"...) which coexist perfectly with
* Dynamique Espace Variation en Insulinde,
certain other "religious crystallisations"
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
22, rue d'Athenes 75009 Paris France (sometimes able to be traced historically) and
3
represented either by personalised divinities of existence of other religious entities which are
the local mythology or by Islamic figures, doubtless more archaic, out of which I will
Allah, Muhammed, angels and other attempt to show that the later ones were
setang. ... Secondly, the practices of the perhaps partly born. Fromthere, I believethat
beliefs and rituals are not really codified in this work will show the inadequacy oftheoret
the rigorous theological liturgies or doc ical tools forged out of the notions of "poly
trines - and this holds even for Islam, at least theism" (for instance, that ofthe divinities of
in the way the Bugis conceive it ! the local, mythological pantheon, called "La
Finally, the multiplicity ofconcrete cultural Galigo," see Pelras [1983]), and "monothe
practices which are actually observable - for ism" (for instance, Islam). Taken literally, and
example, the worshipping of anonymous by the general form of reasoning that they
spirits populating the daily universe, the follow, each ofthese "systems" is presented on
worshipping offamily ancestors, the worship its own unique account, self-sufficient and
ping of local mythological divinities, or rega capable of minimising differences.
lia cults, or finally the distinctive worship of So, in what areas can these concepts still be
the Muslim religion - are arranged here in a of interest for us here? By virtue of their
perfect parallel, one next to the other. To be incapacity to take into account the plurality of
more precise, if it is certain there are ritual real and concrete religious practices the right
distinctions between each ofthese practices way round renders by itselfthe phenomena of
again it will be seen that these distinctions displacement and transposition, ofwhich they
remam fairly vague in general [Pelras are the object, unintelligible. In other words,
1985aJ - these appear to be on the whole the concepts of polytheism and monotheism
more "ramified" than "contradictory," and far allow us to ask these questions which are
from dominating each other (even in the guise fundamental for us and which are precisely
ofa "foil"). In practice it is as ifeach one has external to their systems, namely: Has not the
its own relative degree of autonomy. From notion of a "unique God" been welcomed by
here, it seems that the presence of disconcert South Sulawesi thanks to its reference (how
ing juxtapositions with their extreme heter ever vague that might be) to the ancient
ogeneity of ritual gestures ([ibid.J, also see mythological divinities of "La Galigo"?
below the example relative to offerings), is, in Haven't these divinities been generated in
the mind ofthe Bugis believei:', the presence of their turn through a certain relation which
"simultaneous" sincerities which would only they kept alive with the archaic notion oflocal
be contradictory from the systematic and reify ancestors - and from this, what has been the
ing viewpoint focused on them. impact and contribution here of "foreign"
Thus we find ourselves faced with an religious figures, both the Hindu-Buddhist
ambiguous reality where the idea ofa unique origin and the Muslim one? First of all, we
and supreme god seems to have adapted itself will turn to the theoretical implications of
to the existence ofother "gods" in the regional these questions, which lead us to draw, by way
mythology; these also appear to tolerate the of conclusion, the contours of the notion of
4
G. HAMONIC: God, Divinities and Ancestors
"polycentric," "a-centric," or better still, "net - The process of social "sedimentation"
work" systems, whose modalities ofapproach and "stratification" which, diachronically,
we must define. both appear to produce these diverse sets of
To do this, we must dwell on various paradigms and to lay them in tiers, from the
processes at work at the heart ofsuch systems, most recent to the most ancient, from the most
and ruling their development, to find out: contingent to the most unchanging, from the
- The process ofmaking up religious para most determining to the most incidental. . . .
digms, that is to say, their movements and - The plurality of visions of the world
inner dynamism. resulting from the ordering of the set of
- The process of dialectic logic which, processes mentioned above.
synchronously, links them and distributes Let us take each one of these different
them in diverse spatial-frameworks that are points, illustrating them with examples.
singular on each occasion.
Part I - Paradigms and Dynamics in Religious Thinking
The paradigms of religious thinking - for end of the thirteenth and the beginning ofthe
instance, those ofBugis thinking, as for exam fourteenth centuries, since all the south island
ple the idea of the "navel," posi'; the idea of traditions (Bugis, Mandar, Makassar, Toraja)
the "sacred tree" (given in terms nearly syn agree on the fact that the confederative re
onymous with terms used for varieties officus, grouping ofancient village unities was accom
baringeng, penrang, ajuara, etc.); the idea of plished here under the leadership of such
"beings descended from the heavens," semi-divine characters [Hamonic 1987: 7,
tomanurung; the idea of "beings arisen from 13-16]. We know, however, that this arche
the depths," totompo', etc. - are presented type of "being descended from heaven," or
first and foremost under the form of in "arisen from the depths" took place before
variants. Or they are presented as what is this period, since it magnificently inaugurated
designated for our part as sorts ofsmall auton the great local mythological cycle of "La
omous islands, apparently transhistoric, but Galigo," whose arrangement very probably
nevertheless shaping certain manners ofthink occured between the ninth and the twelfth
ing about the world which, themselves, are centuries [ibid.:6]. And furthermore, we have
historically datable, even if approximately. tried to demonstrate elsewhere that this arche
Thus for example, the beliefin tomanurung type doubtlessly resulted in the transposition
and totompo', which persisted for more than and reorientation of very archaic exchange
four centuries in parallel with the Muslim relations and other matrimonial UnIons
faith, doubtlessly attained its full and rapid between "peoples ofthe highlands" and "peo
development during the period when the king ple of the coast" [ibid.:19 passim].
doms ofSouth Sulawesi were emerging, at the Thus it must not be forgotten that every
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invariant or every "core," is itselfmade up of note 43J.
a set of relations; and it's why a paradigm - In yet another context, it concerns the
always remains multidimensional. Various cosmic tree, the axis ofthe world mentioned in
new ideas, images or values can in turn come the great cycle of"La Galigo," whose boughs
to shed light on certain facets, whilst others pierce the canopy of heaven according to the
will be plunged into darkness. four orients, while the roots plunged into the
One example will help us here to measure abyssal world. This image is however explic
the whole range of shades of meaning of the itly "foreign" and is qualified by the expres
behaviour and beliefs aroused by the same sion of Pao Jengki, "The Mango Tree of
paradigm. Zanj," that is to say Zanzibar [Pelras 1983:
In the Bugis society, the very archaic image 96, note 19].
of the "sacred tree" has never been obliter - Finally, it could concern the sacred tree
ated from the mentality of the inhabitants, providing shade to which the fervent Muslim
despite the diverse cultural waves that fol will come "to receive the magic knowledge"
lowed one another in the course of South (mappotarimai paddisengeng) in the course of
Sulawesi's history. But this image is nonethe a nocturnal ritual termed mangama/a' (a term
less cloaked with diverse meanings according formed from the Arab term kamal, "perfect")
to the synchronic and diachronic contexts into [Hamonic 1987: 22].
which it fits : There is thus simultaneous breaking otTand
- Sometimes, it concerns a sacred tree (ba continuity in the temporal impact of one or
ringen, ajuara, penrang, etc.) which stood: at another paradigm of religious thinking and
the centre ofcertain clearings, before the earth the shifts and mutations to which it is subject
was even populated, and is supposed to have indeed make up its specific dynamism. It is
presided over the later establishment of vil why it could be important to question the type
lages on its periphery (see here the Chronicle oflogic that governs suchdynamics, which are
of Wajo', cited in Hamonic [ibid. :160J). simultaneously internal to the paradigms and
- In another context, it concerns a "breath rule their external association.
of-life tree" (laju tinio), whose conception
appears to go back to the most archaic period
About "Another" Logic
of South Sulawesi, but whose popular rituals
show today that it isconsidered the "ancestor" As a matter offact, the working logic at the
or the "twin brother" ofthe new-born (see the heart of paradigms as between paradigms
description ofbirth rituals in Bugis, where the themselves is not at all a logic of exclusion
placenta is buried with a coconut [ibid.:39]). (the type of Aristotelian logic in which A
- Sometimes, it concerns a sacred tree cannot be non-A), but rather a logic of
inhabited by divinities and sources of participation, of oscillation, or of the perpet
medecine, around which the last priests of ual coming and going between the polarities
pre-Islamic religions came "to make a circular of a "same" and "another" which is also a
tour" during shamanistic rituals [ibid.:182, "same."
6
G. HAMONIC: God, Divinities and Ancestors
Thus, to our way of thinking there is the matter of Bugis religious thinking appears to
very characteristic presence of structures, the be much more symbiotic than synthetic; if
vast majority of which are "trinary" and not certain paradigms like that of posi' (see
"binary" in the religious thinking that con below), or the androgynous body of the pre
cerns us (three worlds making up the universe, Islamic priest, are well and truly at the highest
three essential polarities; "head," "navel" and planes of mediation between the opposites
"feet"; three religious orientations of the cos (and a number of rituals practices confirm
mos; rising, zenith and setting; etc.). Also this), they are no less complete paradigms on
there is the recurrence of near-obsessional their own.
mythological themes in the imaginary world Thus have we been able to show that the
of the inhabitants of South Sulawesi, for phenomenon oftransvestites (a behaviour that
example, the divine, hermaphroditic figures or is widespread in South Sulawesi, as elsewhere
the incest between twins, and especially the in numerous other South East Asian cultures,
truly androgynous image oftransvestite priests in Borneo, Java, the Philippines, Malaysia
(bissu) all being part of ancient religions. In and New Guinea) is dismissed nowhere as a
addition, one should note the confrontation simple reversed transposition of behaviour
with types ofreasoning which never balk at or here defined as masculine or feminine, but is
refrain from interbreeding with other kinds, instead perceived as concerning a separate
sexes or species which for us are very distinct. third and autonomous image [ibid.:45 pas
The figures of the "child-reptiles," human sim].
beings "enveloped in the crocodile form," or So the distinctive life ofreligious paradigms
more simply beings which are half-manjhalf follows here a logic ofthe ambiguous govern
god, come to populate not only the dreams but ing a perpetual oscillatory movement between
also the "daily" reality ofthe Bugis [ibid.:9]. the polarities which are diversified much more
Finally, we have the perpetual search for this in the form of a gradation than in the form of
key notion of equilibrium (palewa) which, a contradiction, even ifthese paradigms some
given the number of metaphors (notably that times crystalise into strange medial figures
of the pendulum, ati') crosscuts all the con (the worship of regalia, which simultaneously
texts ofthe society (equilibrium ofthe diverse assumes certain aspects of the worship of
components of power, equilibrium of the divinities and the worship of ancestors, is an
diverse components of the cosmos, equilib example of this to be discussed later on).
rium of the elements making up the human
body, equilibrium ofthe degrees ofnobility in
Networks and Stratification
the blood, etc. [ibid.: for example 90, n. 376]).
of Religious Paradigms
The relationship existing between what can
appear as complimentary oppositions is not Thus the dialectic process which,
simply a joining together oftwo contradictory synchronically works at the heart ofthe sets of
terms into a third one, which would onlyserve paradigms of religious thinking, can help us
to mechanically add up opposites. The subject once again to understand the manner in which
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these are diachronically tiered in relation to anonymous ancestors (called simply tomanur-
each other. ung, totompo', toriolo', torilangi') easily being
In other words, let us assume that each placed side by side with other offerings aimed
family or swarm ofreligious paradigms splits at quite individual divinities (such as the
up into micro-units, appearing moreover as sokko' aruang nrupa, or "glutinous rice of
relatively autonomous. As has been seen eight colours," being the four colours
above, each ofthese micro-units is not defined mentioned above twice over, destined for/
by "contradictions" uniting it with the others Sangiang Serri, the god of rice), whilst otners
but by practices which are its very own. still (such as the sokko' siddi rupa or "single
For example, it is common to see the same coloured rice") are cloaked in a necessary
person going first to the tomb of a great vagueness, and can be given just as easily to
Muslim saint for some ascetic practice, and the particular local mythological divinities,
then sometime after to repair the saukang or Sawerigading and We Tenriabeng ... as to
the palakka (votive altars dedicated to vague the prophet Mohammed [Pelras 1985a].
divinities or local ancestors) in order for a In fact, the plurality ofsignificance ofsuch
venture to be successful or to receive substan or such a paradigm or group of paradigms
tial monetary benefits (see the description of arises then in the very heart of the ritualistic
such practices in [ibid.:182 passim]). How practice relating to it, and illustrates in this
ever, there is no contradiction between these way that this plurality is irreducible.
two practices, only a simple difference in their
meanings. Also, the same spatial-framework
The Transition, Mutation and
can sometimes assume the function ofa "repel
Metamorphosis of Religious Paradigms;
lent," and sometimes act as a true centre of
the Diversity of Relational Processes
"attraction." Nevertheless, the two cases just
at the Heart of a Mentality
described are well and truly examples of
behavioural determinism. The problem resulting from the preceding
Moreover, it appears that not only do these lines is thus that of the crossing of diverse
diverse spatial-frameworks not necessarily spatial-frameworks of paradigms, tiered one
communicate with each other, but also that in relation to the other, but nevertheless rela
the transition can sometimes be completed, tively autonomous. To answer this, we must
and sometimes aborted at the heart of the now return to the very reality of these para
same set of paradigms. A study of the details digms and closely follow the processes of
of religious offerings will serve as an example transposition, translation and mutation con
here. cerning the inherent values or symbols, and
Thus in the course of the same ritualistic whose function is precisely to create connec
practice, one can see certain offerings (such as tions between the "worlds" or separate planes.
glutinous rice in two colours - black and Also, in the first place, it is advisable to pay
white - or in four colours - white, black, attention to this sort of concurrence of con
yellow, red), intended for diverse sorts of cepts, relative to the same paradigm from the
8
G. HAMONIC: God, Divinities and Ancestors
same register (for example, a liturgic "cor that the self-actualisation ofthe "navel" ofthe
pus"), and to observe if such a web ofvalues human body very probably takes us back to
and meanings allows us to locate the possible the most archaic stratum in the history of
mutations. A simple example concerning the South Sulawesi, and some shamanistic rites
"paradigm of the navel" or posi', will suffice are still there to vouch for this [ibid.:173].
here to expose the reasoning in question. The notion ofthe "navel ofthe earth" is for its
In the Bugis society, the paradigm of the part inseparable from the great mythological
"navel" is one of the best attestations among cycle of "La Galigo," and the period can be
the multiple and diverse material or situated, through diverse cross-checking,
conceptual realities. The human body of somewhere between the ninth and the twelfth
course (of which the umbilicus is a place of centuries. The notion of the "navel of king
prime importance in magico-ritual practices), doms" cannot exist before the historic emer
but also the traditional house, the ship, the gence of the said kingdoms, being, if one
territory of the ancient village units (wanua), believes the local Chronicles, towards the end
that of kingdoms and that of the world of of the thirteenth and the beginning of the
humans itself, are said to each have their fourteenth centuries. Lastly, the notion of the
"navel," rendered elsewhere by the identical "navel ofthe house" (represented by a particu
term of posi' (posi' ale', posi' bola, posi' lar pillar) is attached we believe more directly
tana'. ..). The temptation is then great to to the notion ofthe "navel" ofvillages unities,
arrange these diverse "navels" in one thread of formerly represented by a large tree. The tradi
the same thinking ranging from the most tional disposition of these villages has today
specific to the most general. The "navel ofthe almost disappeared from South Sulawesi, but
human body" comes to be set under the "navel the image of the "navel of kingdoms" is
of the house," which is inserted in its turn perhaps only the later transposition of this,
under the "navel of the territory" of the since these resulted from the federation of
wanua, and thus continues up to the "navel of preexisting village unities. Let us add again
the earth" which, according to the Bugis, that following the great Hinduistic currents
would be represented by an island situated on which spread throughout the Insular South
the western borders of the inhabited world. east Asia, from which South Sulawesi could
Now, an attentive study ofthe known ancient not escape being affected, even if it was in a
texts and of the ritualistic practices still ob very toned down way, the paradigm of the
servable reveals to us not only that the diverse "navel" seems sometimes to have been
"navels" do not refer to a vision ofan identi identified here with the image ofthe centre of
cal world, but again and above all that none a mandala, when originally, the posi' was
of these diverse "navels" refer to the same never determined by the junction of the
period in history, although certain ones co medians of a rectangle or square, but con
exist today in a perfect mental synchrony. stituted rather the intermediary point between
In this way we have been able to demon two poles that would represent for example
strate elsewhere [Hamonic 1987:187, 224], the directions of "head" and "foot" [ibid.:
9
190, 224]. conceive of a system which takes these same
Without complicating at will the relative diversities as its object, as a "broken-up"
details in such a paradigm, one can at least object, and submits to it. The plurality ofthe
assess from this example the empty claim of religious thinking should then cease to be the
any global, systematic reconstruction which is obstacle, but become the very principle of
by its nature incapable oftaking into account reflection.
the plurality of its object. And mostly, it is
interesting to note that the "original" or
A Multidimensional Religious Thinking and
"beginning" value with which the concept of
the Particular Cases of Its Determinism
"navel" is associated is not always expressed
in identical terms. To conclude the differential reading of the
Sometimes the old Bugis word ofNusante religious thinking put forward in these pages,
rian origin, pong, is associated with it (a term it remains to try and chronologically place the
evoking in concrete terms the image of the objects and values in their relation to the
"base," ofthe "stump" ofa tree, for example); principal known periods of the society we
sometimes it is associated with the term mula have studied. In this case, the etymology and
of Sanskrit origin (giving in Bugis the words linguistic analysis will then be the most effi
amulang, "beginning," but also "what is cient methods ofapproach, and the "competi
caused, initial reason," and mammulang, tion" of concepts previously located in the
"what is first"); at other times, it is associated notion of "origin" in the Bugis thinking can
with the term of Arabian origin assaleng be the first illustration of this.
(from asal, and also giving in Bugis ripeyas However, nearly all the documents at our
saleng, "in provenance from," "originating disposal on the subject matter concerning us
from"). In still other contexts, only the image here (mystic texts, liturgic corpus, mythologi
ofan "umbilical cord" (pamentara in ancient cal narrations, abstruse magicformulae...) is
Bugis) seems able to cover this polyvalence of by its nature perfectly "ideological," which
the "origin" symbolised by the navel. means that the documents quite elude form of
This examplethus finds us again confronted chronology from the outset, even though we
by a real plural form ofthinking, which, atthe rightly claim to have found in them the mark
same time, runs counter to the naive "inter of a "periodisation."
locking" of notions. One example relating to an esoteric and
That is why it is not a matter ofseparating very secretive contemporary mystical text,
or reducing - neither the diversity of reli dealing originally with the Bugis gods and
gious paradigms, nor that of their respective already studied elsewhere [Hamonic 1983J
variations, neither the diversity of the proces will serve as an illustration here, since the
ses synchronically uniting them, nor the diver analysis enables us to recognise traces of
sity of the diachronically tiered spatial elements and relations concerning the three
frameworks in which they work and spread distinct strata of Bugis history, these being:
out all these relationships - but rather try to - a religious material inspired by the Mus-
10
G. HAMONIC: God, Divinities and Ancestors
lim thinking, here illustrated 1) by "charac spirit in which our three sets of data were
ters" and elements around which the narration locally developed, and which follows upon
is formed (Alia taala, "The very high God"; the steps we are applying, cannot neglect
Ruhul Khudus, "the angel Gabriel"; Muham answering the question concerning the very
med; jalla lella and jama leila, "majesty" and determinism ofthis spirit. And so the problem
"beauty" attributes ofGod; the fire, air, water of relations between the visions of the world
and earth constituents of the universe, etc); and the concrete historical realities of a soci
and 2) by certain processes of creation (of ety arises again.
relation) that are set in motion (the role ofthe But it is a fact that, although determining
"light of Muhammed," Nurung Muhammed; behaviour, the type of religious thinking with
the insullation of a soul giving life to the which we are.dealing, being pre-eminently
creatures, etc.). esoteric, is not acquainted with chronology
- a mythological material linked to the and does not wish to become acquainted. This
period called "La Galigo," renowned for 1) is comparable with the unconscious and
the inauguration ofthe ancestry ofthe mytho dreams, and perhaps only exists by this act of
logical gods who are explicitly named (Datu refusal, ofdenying time, while for our part we
Patoto', "The prince of destinies," Guru ri insist on the opposite, that it should always
Selleng, "The master of the straits," Datu remain accessible to historical reading. Again
Palinge', "The primordial princess," etc), and like the unconscious and dreams, religious
2) the incestuous marriages between male and thinking is no less constructed in precise
female twins mating "two by two". . . spatio-temporal frameworks which determine
- a neatly cosmologic material which takes it.
its roots from the most archaic history of Having stated the general principles of our
South Sulawesi, and which gives as much argument, we must now illustrate them by
importance to the sun, moon and constella analysing a precise case. The study ofdiverse
tions (which pre-date the myth of "La turning-points which punctuate the history of
Galigo"), as to an androgynous divinity com Bugis religious thinking will here serve as a
ing to give birth on its own... touchstone.
Thus this relative "betrayal" of the initial
Part II - God, Divinities and Ancestors in the Bugis Society
ing some idea ofthe chronological framework
A Necessary Division into Periods
of their society. Every analysis of religious
The essential aim of this work being to notions, values or symbols - and therein lies
delineate the transformations affecting Bugis the continual requirement of the preceding
religious thinking, we will begin first by giv- lines - cannot escape the snare ofa necessary
11