Table Of ContentTHE WORLD CRISIS IN EDUCATION
THE WORLD CRISIS
IN EDUCATION
THE VIEW FROM THE EIGHTIES
Philip H. Coombs
New York Oxford
OXFORD UNNERSITY PRESS
1985
Oxford UniversityPress
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Copyright © 1985 byPhilip H. Coombs
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LIBRARYOFCONGRESSCATALOGINGINPUBLICATIONDATA
Coombs,PhilipHall,1915-
Theworldcrisisineducation.
1.Education. I.Title.
LA132.C64 1985 370 84-5713
ISBN0-19-503502-X
ISBN0-19-503503-8(pbk.)
Printing(lastdigit):9876543
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The trustees ofthe International Council for Educational Developmentexpress
theirgratitudeto the following organizations, whose financial support made this
studypossible. Wewish toemphasize, however, thattheyshareno-responsibility
for the viewsexpressedinthis report.
U.S. AgencyforInternationalDevelopment
U.S. DepartmentofState, BureauofEducationalandCulturalAffairs
EdwardW. Hazen Foundation
MinisterofCooperation,The Netherlands
U.S. NationalCenterforEducationalStatistics
National Endowmentforthe Humanities
U.K. Overseas DevelopmentAdministration
WorldBank, EducationDepartment
PREFACE
This book presents the findings of a worldwide assessment of recent
major trends and changes in education and the critical problems and
opportunities likely to confront educational systems throughout the
world in coming years. A brief genealogical note will help explain its
background and purpose.
As some readers will recognize, this book is a descendant ofan earlier
book, entitled The WorldEducationalCrisis:A SystemsAnalysis(Oxford
University Press, 1968), which I wrote near the end ofmy term as the
first director of the International Institute for Educational Planning
(IIEP) founded in Paris by UNESCO in 1963. The book'sjarring thesis,
that there was an emerging crisis in world education, came at a tim~ of
widespread educational euphoria. It shocked the international educa
tional communityand stirred widespread discussion and debate.
Sincethengreatchangeshavetakenplaceallaroundthe world, inboth
education and its economic, social, and political environment. Asacon
sequence, during my visits to various countries in recent years, I have
repeatedly been asked the same two questions: "What has happened to
that educational crisis you wrote about in the late 1960s, where does it
stand now? Whatdo yousee as the mostcriticalcommonissueslikelyto
face education around the world overthe next ten years orso?"
These are obviouslyimportantandtimelyquestions, butnotonesthat
can be answered offthe top ofone's head. In hopes ofshedding greater
light on them, my colleagues and I at the International Council for Edu
cational Development (ICED),* after consulting a variety of well
informed people, undertook a wide-ranging reassessment of the world
educationalcrisis.Itfellto mylotto directthisstudyandwritethisbook.
As its author, I accept full responsibility for all the views expressed in it.
*The ICED is an independent, nonprofit research and analytical organization
concerned with problems ofeducational development common to many coun
tries. Itenjoysthecooperationofaworldwidenetworkcomprisedofexperienced
individualsandorganizationsthatsharetheseconcerns.
viii I Preface
The study could not have been accomplished, however, without the
generous help of many others. To all of thenl, collectively, I want to
acknowledge my deep indebtedness and sincere gratitude, including the
organizations listed earlier, which contributed financial support; the
innumerable organizations and individuals around the world who pro
vided all sorts ofvaluable information, ideas, and suggestions; and'sev
eral distinguished scholars who prepared special background papers for
the study.
Most ofthese contributorsare cited by name in the text and reference
notes ofthe report itself. Here, however, I want to acknowledge my spe
cial thanks to severalcolleagueswho had adirectand importanthandin
the enterprise. These include Sydney Hyman, whose talented editorial
hand removed manyrough edgesfrom thedraft report; mytwo able and
indefatigable research associates, Julie Fisher and Krashruzzaman
Choudhury, who mined and smelted many valuable nuggets from an
imposing mountain ofdocumentation; Leo Dubbe/dam, who was gener
ouslydonated by CESO (the Centrefor the StudyofEducationinDevel
oping Countries in The Hague) to work with me for a year, and whose
rich knowledge ofthe educational and cultural conditions in many Afri
can and Asian countries added greatly to the study; and not least ofall,
my versatile and tireless administrative assistant, Frances O'Dell, who
kept thecomplex logistiCal details ofthe project on trackfrom beginning
to end. In addition, Iwant to thank LeoFernigfor his wisecounsel dur
ing the planning phase ofthe study, and our three bright and energetic
ICED summer research interns-Rezan Benitar (Turkey), Jennie Hay
Woo (United States), and Joe/ Momanyi (Kenya)-who helped early in
the projectto siftand synthesize pertinentinformationfrom agreatvari
ety ofsources. Most important ofall, I want to express my deep indebt
edness and gratitude to the lady whose infinite patience and encourage
ment nurtured this bookfrom beginningto end-my wife, Helen.
As a final cautionary word, readers ofthis book should not expect to
find ready-made solutions to the formidable problems it explores. Its
more modest aim is to provide a comparative international perspective
that may help planners and policymakers in individual countries to see
theirowncountry'seducationalproblemsandopportunitiesmoreclearly
as theyseektoformulate policiesandactionsappropriatetoitsparticular
goalsand circumstances.
P.H.C.
Essex, Connecticut
November, 1984
CONTENTS
FIGURESAND TABLES xii
ABBREVIATIONS 2
CHAPTER 1. A NEWLOOKATANOLD CRISIS 3
In Retrospect 3
SummarizationoftheEarlierThesis 4
PresentPurpose 8
RecentChangesin Education'sEnvironment 9
Changesin DevelopmentThinkingand Policies 14
ChangesinEducationalThought 20
TheAnalyticalApproach 27
CHAPTER 2. THE RAPID GROWTH
OFLEARNING NEEDS 33
Supplyand Demand: The 1968Appraisal 33
PopulationGrowth 36
Migrationand Urbanization 44
Conditionsand LearningNeedsin Rural Areas 49
ImpactofDevelopmenton LearningNeeds 57
AddingItAll Up 61
CHAPTEfJ. 3. QUANTITATIVE GROWTH
ONTHESUPPLYSIDE 66
NationalAgendas, Priorities, andStrategies 66
Education's NewLookby 1980 71
TheSlowdowninthe 1970s 80
The OutlookforFormalEducation 83
TheUpsurgein NonformalEducation 86
The EnrichmentofInformal Education 92
Some PreliminaryConclusions 95
x I Contents
CHAPTER 4. THE CHANGING QUALITATIVE
DIMENSIONS 105
Gettingthe Subjectin Focus 106
ImpactofEnvironmentalChanges 110
Changes inthe SchoolsandColleges 113
ChangesinObjectivesandCurriculum 114
TheChangingSupplyand RolesofTeachers 117
EducationalTechnologies 125
TheBalanceSheetandOutlook 131
CHAPTER 5. THE GROWINGFINANCIAL SQUEEZE 136
Prediction 136
Trendsin PublicEducationalExpenditures: 1960-79 139
TheImpactofInflation 143
RisingReal EducationalCosts 145
ResponsesofEducationSystemsto theSqueeze 154
TheFuture? 160
Ways toCombatthe Squeeze 165
CHAPTER 6. EDUCATIONANDEMPLOYMENT 171
Background 171
TheTurnofEvents inthe 1970s 179
Caveatsabout EmploymentStatistics 183
GrowthofYouth Unemploymentin OECDCountries 184
TheCaseofthe EuropeanSocialistCountries 190
TheCaseofDevelopingCountries 194
Lookingto the Future 200
CHAPTER 7. DISPARITIESANDINEQUALITIES 211
TheIdealVersusthe Real 211
VoicesofCriticism 215
FocusingQuestions 217
GeographicDisparities 218
SexDisparities 224
SocioeconomicDisparities 230
PossibleWaysto Reduce Inequalities 233
CHAPTER 8. EDUCATION, CULTURE, SCIENCE,
ANDLANGUAGE 243
DirectionalSignal 243
EducationandCulturalUpheavals 244
Contents xi
ImpactofScienceon Education 246
TheAmbiguousIssueofMoral Education 250
The Language Dilemma 255
Prospects 263
CHAPTER 9. THE TARNISHED LITERACYMYTH 265
The LiteracyBalanceSheet 266
HistoricalRoots 270
MoreRecentExperiences 271
Lessonsofa MajorUNESCO ExperimentalProgram 272
Puttingthe LessonstoGood Use 276
Ambiguities 279
CriticalQuestionsforFutureStrategy 281
CHAPTER 10. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION(I):
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ASSISTANCE 285
TheAlteredClimateofCooperation 287
ChangesinEducational DevelopmentAssistance 289
The NewDirections 300
TheFutureofEducationalAssistance 305
CHAPTER 11. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION(II):
PEOPLE, IDEAS, ANDKNOWLEDGE 314
ChangesinForeignStudentFlowsand Policies 314
The ExchangeofTeachers, Scholars,and Research 329
TheWorrisomeDeclinein InternationalStudies 331
INDEX 341
