THE ENDURING GODDESS: Artemis and Mary, Mother of Jesus

250 Pages·2016·1.99 MB·English

“THE ENDURING GODDESS: Artemis and Mary, Mother of Jesus”

Carla Ionescu

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HUMANITIES
YORK UNIVERSITY
TORONTO, ONTARIO

May 2016

© Carla Ionescu, 2016
ii

Abstract:

Tradition states that the most popular Olympian deities are Apollo, Athena, Zeus and
Dionysius. These divinities played key roles in the communal, political and ritual development
of the Greco-Roman world. This work suggests that this deeply entrenched scholarly tradition is
fissured with misunderstandings of Greek and Ephesian popular culture, and provides evidence
that clearly suggests Artemis is the most prevalent and influential goddess of the Mediterranean,
with roots embedded in the community and culture of this area that can be traced further back in
time than even the arrival of the Greeks. In fact, Artemis’ reign is so fundamental to the cultural
identity of her worshippers that even when facing the onslaught of early Christianity, she could
not be deposed. Instead, she survived the conquering of this new religion under the guise of
Mary, Mother of Jesus.
Using methods of narrative analysis, as well as review of archeological findings, this
work demonstrates that the customs devoted to the worship of Artemis were fundamental to the
civic identity of her followers, particularly in the city of Ephesus in which Artemis reigned not
only as Queen of Heaven, but also as Mother, Healer and Saviour. Reverence for her was as so
deeply entrenched in the community of this city, that after her temple was destroyed, and
Christian churches were built on top of her sacred places, her citizens brought forward the only
female character in the new ruling religion of Christianity, the Virgin Mary, and re-named her
Theotokos, Mother of God, within its city walls.
The fundamental position of this work is that a fusion took place between the ancient
worship of Artemis in Ephesus, and the elevation of Mary to Theotokos, and that this fusion is
not a result of the church-initiated action to convert the Ephesians, but rather the Ephesians
forcing the early church to accommodate their traditions of Artemis by reshaping and
reinterpreting the authority and responsibilities of the Virgin Mary.
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Acknowledgments

I would never have been able to finish my dissertation without the guidance of my
committee members, help from friends, and support from my family.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Professor Barrie
Wilson, for his excellent guidance, encouragement, patience, and providing me with constant
motivation and inspiration for continuing my research. I could not have imagined having a better
advisor and mentor for my Ph.D. study.
A special thank you to Professor Becky Lee for patiently, and meticulously, correcting
my writing, as well as continuously asking the hard questions which inspired me to detail my
research with various perspectives.
I would also like to thank the third member of my thesis committee, Professor Joan
Gibson, for her insightful comments and patient encouragement.
Special thank you to Michelle Murray, Dean, Bishop’s University for her careful reading
of the manuscript and for her helpful and gracious comments.
Thank you to my colleagues, Gurbir Singh, Catherine Legault, and Francesca D’Angelo,
who were always willing to help, give their best suggestions, and constantly encouraged me to
get back to writing! Completing this work would not have been possible without their help.
Finally, a great big thank you goes out to my parents, my husband and my amazing
children. Their constant encouragement, as well as financial and emotional support, allowed me
to take the time to complete my research and achieve my academic goals.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract............................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................iv
List of Illustrations...........................................................................................................................v

Introduction.……………………………………………………………………………………….1

Chapter One: THE EARLY ARTEMIS: GODDESS OF TRANSITIONS...................................18
1. The Evolution of the Religion of Artemis……………………………………………...……..18
2. From Egypt to Greece: The Egyptian Transformation of Artemis Agrotera............................22
3. Minoan Traditions: Artemis as the Mistress of Animals…………………………………..….29
4. The Embodiment of Duality: Representations of Artemis in Greek Ritual…………..……….38
5. Artemis Despoine: Mistress of Mysteries………………………………………………….….52
6. Goddess of Transitions: A Conclusion………………………………………………………..57

Chapter Two: ARTEMIS EPHESIA: THE PEOPLE’S GODDESS.............................................60
1. Ephesus: Origin and Geography………………………………………………………………60
2. Artemis Ephesia: Goddess of the First Throne………………………………………………..74
3. Processions, Rituals and Beliefs………………………………………………………………87
4. Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………..…….98

Chapter Three: THE VIRGIN MARY: A NEW CULT ON THE HORIZON............................101
1. Mary: A Girl Like Any Other..................................................................................................102
2. Infancy Gospel of James: The Virgin Brings Salvation..........................................................122
3. Conclusions: The Significance of Belief in Canonical Tradition............................................140

Chapter Four: THEOTOKOS: THE CITY OF GODDESSES....................................................144
1. The Tradition of Mary in Ephesus…………………………………………………...………145
2. The Council of Ephesus………………………………………………………………...……162
3. Theotokos: A Conclusion……………………………………………………………………185

Chapter Five: THE ENDURING GODDESS: A PROCESS OF FUSION………...…………..187
1. A Synthesis of Life Narratives and Mythology…………………………………..………….191
2. The Importance of Titles and Roles in Successful Fusion………………………...…………209
3. Changing of the Gods: A Conclusion of Fusion……………………………………………..229

Works Cited.................................................................................................................................235
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List of Illustrations

Fig. 1: Representation of the goddess Artemis Orthia in
the usual stance of Potnia Theron on an archaic ivory
votive offering, (National Archaeological
Museum of Athens)………………………………………………………………………25

Fig. 2: Artemis, Demeter, Veil of Despoina, Anytus, Tritoness
from the throne. Elements are from the cult sculptural
group in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens………………………………55

Fig. 3: Black Artemis Ephesia, Capitoline Museum, Rome……………………………………..84

Fig. 4. Map of Ephesos Archeological Sites………………………………………..…………..164

Fig. 5: Artemis (Diana) Ephesia, National Archeological
Museum, Naples, Italy…………………………………………………...……………..214

Fig. 6: The Virgin of Montserrat, Monserrat Shrine, Spain…………………………………….214

Fig. 7: Artemis Ephesia. National Archeological Museum,
Naples, Italy…………………………………………………………………………….219

Fig. 8: Coins of Ephesus often show the Bee and Stag,
emblems of Artemis Ephesia. These date to around 300
B.C.E……………………………………………………………………………………220
1

Map 1. Ephesus City – Mediterranean Sea

Map 2. Aegean Region of Turkey
2

Map 3. Ephesus: Excavation Site

Map 4. Ephesus: Excavation Site, Artemession
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THE ENDURING GODDESS

Now is come the last age of the Cumaean prophecy:
The great cycle of periods is born anew.
Now returns the [Virgin]…
Now from high heaven a new generation comes down.
- Virgil Fourth Eclogue (4-7)

INTRODUCTION
I came across Artemis Ephesia in an undergraduate biblical studies class. I was working
on a paper about the worship of Greek deities in the broader Mediterranean area and stumbled
upon a picture of her unique statue in Ephesus. I remember staring at the photograph trying to
reconcile the familiar depiction of her as Mistress of the Hunt in Greek myth, with her being
revered as Mother, Healer, and Queen, by the Ephesians. Since that time, I have noticed
numerous details from Greek history, archeology and ritual culture, often glimpsed through
obscure passages in ancient texts and in the writings of unsuspecting contemporary scholars. I
have collected these seemingly random pieces and assembled them here.
Classical Greek historians claim that the most popular Olympian deities are Apollo,
Athena, Zeus and Dionysius. Tradition states that these divinities played key roles in the
communal, political and ritual development of the Greco-Roman world. My research shows that
this deeply entrenched scholarly tradition is fissured with misunderstandings of Greek and
Ephesian popular culture. In this work I provide evidence that clearly suggests that Artemis is the
most prevalent and influential goddess of the Mediterranean, with roots embedded in the
4

community and culture of this area that can be traced further back in time than even the arrival of
the Greeks. In fact, Artemis’ reign is so fundamental to the cultural identity of her worshippers
that even when facing the onslaught of early Christianity, she could not be deposed. Instead, she
survived the conquering of this new religion under the guise of Mary, Mother of Jesus.
This work demonstrates that the customs devoted to the worship of Artemis were
fundamental to the civic identity of her followers, particularly in the city of Ephesus in which
Artemis reigned not only as Queen of Heaven, but also as Mother, Healer and Saviour.
Reverence for her was so deeply entrenched in the community of this city, that after her temple
was destroyed, and Christian churches were built on top of her sacred places, her citizens
brought forward the only female character in the new ruling religion of Christianity, the Virgin
Mary, and re-named her Theotokos, Mother of God, within its city walls. The fundamental
position of this work is that a fusion took place between the ancient worship of Artemis in
Ephesus, and the elevation of Mary to Theotokos, and that this fusion is not a result of the church
initiated action to convert the Ephesians, but rather the Ephesians forcing the early church to
accommodate their traditions of Artemis by reshaping and reinterpreting the authority and
responsibilities of the Virgin Mary.
This finding has strategic implications. Paul’s attempt to replace the Ephesian Goddess
with a male deity, the Christ, was found wanting. Rather, early Christianity was pressured by
popular devotion into accepting both a Goddess and a God. The strategy of confrontation was
5

replaced by one of accommodation, the clear result of popular demand by the laity. It also
testifies to the enduring power of the feminine within religious practice and belief.1

A SURVEY OF LITERATURE
It was extremely difficult to dig through scholarly works on archaic Greek ritual and
myth only to find that Artemis had been largely ignored and set aside as a young virgin girl who
loves animals and the hunt. While Homer and Herodotus did nothing to convey the influence of
Artemis in Greek culture, Pausanias (c. 110-180) was able to illuminate the complexities and
plethora of her worship and temples. I spent many hours tracing Pausanias’ footsteps and noting
every corner, seaside, and city where a temple to Artemis was found. Pausanias cites dozens of
such sites, many of which still exist today as one drives around the Peloponnesus. Numerous
other primary sources were consulted in the hope of piecing together the earliest worship of
Artemis and her etiology. Aeschylus, Hesiod, and Callimachus are some of the foundational
primary texts when looking at the tradition of the Greek Artemis. Their writings are mostly
analyzed in Chapter One and Two, and used to establish the mythological position of Artemis in

1 For the purpose of this work the sources and discussion presented here are based on Early Christian and
Greco-Roman representations of the divine feminine. Jewish traditions regarding the feminine divine
during this time period, e.g. the concept of shekhina, the feminine presence of God that dwells in Israel, is
reflected in rabbinic writings (e.g. b. Sanh. 39a, 103b; b. Yoma 56b). These writings address a
manifestation of the feminine-masculine relationship expressed in the connections between Asherah and
Yahweh, or Wisdom (hochmah, which is feminine) and Yahweh. Although the context of Early Christian
mythology is based in Jewish traditions, and Mary was a Jewish woman, the narrative analysed in this
work shows that Early Christian authority, as well as the Ephesians of this time, did not explicitly discuss
or debate Judaic elements.