The Ecozones of the World: The Ecological Divisions of the Geosphere

252 Pages·2005·8.64 MB·English

by  Jürgen Schultz (auth.)

¨
JurgenSchultz
TheEcozonesoftheWorld
TheEcologicalDivisionsoftheGeosphere
¨
Jurgen Schultz
The Ecozones
of the World
The Ecological Divisions
of the Geosphere
Translated into English by Bridget Ahnert
Second Edition
with144Figures,22Tables,and5Boxes
123
Author Translator
Ju¨rgenSchultz BridgetAhnert
GeographischesInstitut Karl-Christ-Str.15a
Rheinisch-Westfälische 69118Heidelberg
TechnischeHochschuleAachen(RWTH)
Templergraben55
52056Aachen
Germany
ThisbookwasoriginallypublishedinGermanunderthetitle“DieÖkozonenderErde”,3.Auflage.
©2002byEugenUlmerGmbH&Co.,Stuttgart,Germany
1stEnglishEditionSpringer-Verlag,1995
ISBN-10 3-540-20014-2 SpringerBerlinHeidelbergNewYork
ISBN-13 978-3-540-20014-7 SpringerBerlinHeidelbergNewYork
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2005924522
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V
Preface
Nine terrestrial ecozones are distinguished and described in separate chap-
ters.Eachoftheseregionalchaptersissubdividedbythesameheadings,i.e.
distribution, climate, relief and drainage, soil, vegetation and animals, and
land use. The contents of the corresponding subdivisions have similar or-
ganizations and use consistent terminology and units of measurement. This
should help the reader greatly in finding and comparing information which
especially interests him; e.g. he can easily find which soil units are charac-
teristic for each of the ecozones or how ecozones differ with respect to soil
units. Other features and processes handled in this way include weathering
of rocks, erosion and sedimentation processes, soil formation, solar radi-
ation, growing seasons, moisture regime, vegetation structure and dynam-
ics, nutrient cycling, energy fluxes, ecosystem models, agricultural use and
potential.
Theregionalsectionwhichpresentsthenineindividualecozonesispreceded
byageneralsectioninwhichnumerousecologicalterminiareintroducedand
comparingoverviewsofselectedcharacteristicsaredescribed.
Soil types are classifiedand named in accordance with the FAO-UNESCO
classificationsystem,whichhasbeenutilizedinpreparingauniquedetailed
soil map of the entire earth (and an even more detailed one covering the
European Economic Community). With this map, internationally applicable
soilterminologyhasbeenmadeavailableforthefirsttime.Theterminology
maysoundsomewhatforeignto unaccustomedears, butthiswillnot bethe
caseforlong.Thereadershouldnotlethimselfbeputoffbyforeign-sounding
soilnames–hewillhavetolearnthemsoonerorlateranyway!
This book was conceived mainly to serve students of geography. I would
bepleasedif others also find interest init – studentsof biology, agricultural
sciencesorforestry,andgeographyorbiologyteachersstrivingtofurthertheir
knowledge,andallthoseinterestedinecologyandgeographywhowouldlike
more information on the specific characteristics of the major regions of the
earth, if only for the purpose of preparing themselves for a journey to an-
other part of our planet. During my stays in foreign regions, I have at times
wishedfor abookwhich–asistheintendedpurposeofthepresent volume
– could have provided in concentrated form a summary and explanation of
themostsignificantcharacteristicsofthemajorregionsoftheearthandtheir
interactionswithoneanother.
VI
Thethemeofthebookinhandis(geo)ecology.Nothoweverinthecurrent
prevailingsense,wherebythe(destructive)environmentaleffectsofmanand
the protection of the environment from these influences have taken centre
stage.Itismuchmoreconcernedwithfurnishinguswithinformationabout
the nature of our environment, its form and the materials of its composite
parts,aswellastheinteractionbetweenthem.Itgoeswithoutsayingthathope
will be born for a greater understanding for the environment as well as its
preservation.
¨
JurgenSchultz
Aachen,August2004
Contents
General:thetreatmentoftheecozonesandglobaloverviews
ofselectedcharacteristics
1 Distribution 7
2 Climate 11
2.1 Solarradiation.................................................................... 11
2.2 Thegrowingseasonandconditionsforplantgrowth................ 14
3 Reliefanddrainage 17
3.1 Geomorphologicalprocesses ................................................ 17
3.2 Drainageandwaterbalance.................................................. 17
4 Soils 21
4.1 Soilfertility........................................................................ 21
4.2 Soilwaterbudget................................................................. 23
4.3 Soilunitsandsoilzones....................................................... 26
5 Vegetationandanimals 35
5.1 Structuralcharacteristicsofthevegetation ............................. 35
5.2 Ecosystemmodelofecozone................................................. 38
5.3 Availablesupplyoforganicmatterintheecosystem................. 40
5.4 Primaryproduction............................................................. 40
5.4.1 Photosynthesisandrespiration.................................... 40
5.4.2 Primaryproductionfromplantstands.......................... 42
5.4.3 Productioncapacityoftheworld’splantcover............... 43
5.5 Consumptionbyanimalsandsecondaryproduction................ 48
5.6 Wasteanddecomposition..................................................... 49
5.7 Turnoverofminerals........................................................... 51
6 Landuse 55
VIII Contents
Regionalsection:Theindividualecozones
7 Polarsubpolarzone 63
7.1 Distribution....................................................................... 63
7.2 Climate.............................................................................. 64
7.2.1 Temperature,lengthofday,precipitation...................... 64
7.2.2 Annual temperature changes in the soil and air layer
nexttothesoil.......................................................... 65
7.2.3 Summersolarradiationandheatbudget....................... 67
7.3 Reliefanddrainageinperiglacialareas................................... 68
7.4 Soils.................................................................................. 72
7.5 Vegetationandfaunainthetundraandpolardeserts............... 73
7.5.1 Distributionofvegetation........................................... 74
7.5.2 Biomassandprimaryproduction................................. 75
7.5.3 Animalsandanimalfeed............................................ 76
7.5.4 Decompositionandturnoverofminerals...................... 77
7.5.5 Modelofatundraecosystem....................................... 78
7.6 Landuse............................................................................ 80
Synopticdiagramforthetundra.................................................... 81
8 Borealzone 83
8.1 Distribution....................................................................... 83
8.2 Climate.............................................................................. 84
8.3 Reliefanddrainage.............................................................. 87
8.4 Soils.................................................................................. 89
8.5 Vegetationandanimals........................................................ 91
8.5.1 Borealconiferousforest.............................................. 91
8.5.2 Peatbogs.................................................................. 92
8.5.3 Foresttundra,polarandforesttreelines....................... 93
8.5.4 Biomassandprimaryproduction................................. 94
8.5.5 Decomposition,organicsoilmatterandmineralreserves 94
8.5.6 Borealconiferousforestecosystems.............................. 98
8.6 Landuse............................................................................ 98
SynopticdiagramfortheBorealzone.............................................100
9 Temperatemidlatitudes 103
9.1 Distribution.......................................................................103
9.2 Climate..............................................................................103
9.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................105
9.4 Soils..................................................................................107
9.5 Vegetationandanimals........................................................108
9.5.1 Seasonalityindeciduousforests ..................................109
9.5.2 Waterbudgetinforests...............................................111
9.5.3 Biomassandprimaryproduction,growth
andlitterproduction..................................................112
Contents IX
9.5.4 Mineralbudgetinmidlatitudedeciduousbroadleaf
andborealconiferousforests.......................................113
9.5.5 Modelofanecosystemofadeciduousforest..................118
9.6 Landuse............................................................................118
SynopticdiagramfortheTemperatemidlatitudes............................121
10 Drymidlatitudes 123
10.1 Distribution.......................................................................123
10.2 Climate..............................................................................124
10.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................125
10.4 Soilsinthesteppes..............................................................125
10.4.1 Typesofsoilinthezone .............................................125
10.4.2 Halomorphicsoils.....................................................128
10.5 Vegetationandanimalsinthesteppes....................................128
10.5.1 Typesofsteppes........................................................129
10.5.2 Life-form and adaptation to winter cold and summer
drought....................................................................130
10.5.3 Animals...................................................................130
10.5.4 Biomass,primaryproductionanddecomposition..........131
10.5.5 Availablesupplyandturnoverofminerals.....................134
10.6 Landuse............................................................................134
10.6.1 Largescalegraincultivation........................................134
10.6.2 Extensivepastureeconomy.........................................136
Synopticdiagramforsteppes........................................................138
11 Subtropicswithwinterrain 141
11.1 Distribution.......................................................................141
11.2 Climate..............................................................................142
11.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................143
11.4 Soils..................................................................................143
11.5 Vegetationandanimals........................................................144
11.5.1 Sclerophyllousvegetation ...........................................144
11.5.2 Adaptationtosummerdrought ...................................146
11.5.3 Animals...................................................................148
11.5.4 Fire .........................................................................148
11.5.5 Biomassandprimaryproduction.................................150
11.6 LandUse............................................................................152
SynopticdiagramfortheSubtropicswithwinterrain.......................154
12 Subtropicswithyear-roundrain 157
12.1 Distribution.......................................................................157
12.2 Climate..............................................................................158
12.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................159
12.4 Soils..................................................................................160
12.5 Vegetation..........................................................................161
12.5.1 Structuralcharacteristics............................................161
X Contents
12.5.2 Availablesupplyandturnoverinasemi-evergreenoak
forestinthesoutheasternUnitedStates ........................162
12.6 Landuse............................................................................165
SynopticdiagramfortheSubtropicswithyear-roundrain.................165
13 Drytropicsandsubtropics 169
13.1 Distribution.......................................................................169
13.2 Climate..............................................................................170
13.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................172
13.3.1 Weatheringprocessesandcrusts..................................172
13.3.2 Aeolianprocesses......................................................172
13.3.3 Streamerosionandwashdenudation...........................173
13.4 Soils..................................................................................174
13.5 Vegetationandanimals........................................................175
13.5.1 Vegetationandsoilwaterbudget..................................176
13.5.2 Adaptationtodroughtandstress.................................180
13.5.3 Animalsinthedesert.................................................183
13.5.4 Biomassandprimaryproduction.................................184
13.6 Landuse............................................................................185
13.6.1 Pastoralnomadism....................................................185
13.6.2 Oasisagriculture.......................................................187
Synopticdiagramfortropicalthornsavannasandsubtropicalthorn...189
steppesinthesemi-aridDrytropicsandsubtropics..........................189
14 Tropicswithsummerrain 193
14.1 Distribution.......................................................................193
14.2 Climate..............................................................................194
14.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................195
14.4 Soils..................................................................................198
14.4.1 General characteristics of soils in the subtropics and
tropicswithsummerandyear-roundrain.....................198
14.4.2 Soiltypes .................................................................200
14.5 Vegetationandanimals........................................................202
14.5.1 Structuralcharacteristicsofsavannavegetation.............202
14.5.2 Animals...................................................................203
14.5.3 Savannafires.............................................................204
14.5.4 Biomassandprimaryproduction.................................204
14.5.5 Zoomassandanimalfeed...........................................206
14.5.6 Decompositionoflitter...............................................208
14.5.7 Mineralsuppliesandturnovers ...................................209
14.6 Landuse............................................................................210
SynopticdiagramfortheTropicswithsummerrain.........................213
15 Tropicswithyear-roundrain 215
15.1 Distribution.......................................................................215
15.2 Climate..............................................................................216
Contents XI
15.3 Reliefanddrainage..............................................................217
15.4 Soils..................................................................................218
15.5 Vegetationandanimals........................................................221
15.5.1 Structureofthetropicalrainforest...............................221
15.5.2 Dynamicsofthevegetation.........................................224
15.5.3 Animals...................................................................224
15.5.4 Biomassandprimaryproduction.................................225
15.5.5 Animalfeed..............................................................226
15.5.6 Litter,thelitterlayer,decompositionandhumus............226
15.5.7 Mineralsuppliesandturnovers ...................................227
15.5.8 Rainforestecosystem .................................................229
15.6 Landuse............................................................................230
SynopticdiagramfortheTropicswithyear-roundrain.....................235
References 237