The ecosystem approach to fisheries : issues, terminology, principles, institutional foundations, implementation and outlook

78 Pages·2003·2.8 MB·English

by  García, S. M. (DE-601)28327932X

The ecosystem approach
to fisheries
Issues,terminology,principles,
institutionalfoundations,
implementationandoutlook
The ecosystem approach FAO
FISHERIES
TECHNICAL
to fisheries PAPER
443
Issues,terminology,principles,
institutionalfoundations,
implementationandoutlook
by
S.MGarcia
FisheryResourcesDivision
FAOFisheriesDepartment
A.Zerbi,C.Aliaume,T.DoChi,G.Lasserre
ResearchUnitonLagoonEcosystems
UniversityofMontpellier2
France
FOODANDAGRICULTUREORGANIZATIONOFTHEUNITEDNATIONS
Rome.2003
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©FAO2003
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PREPARATIONOFTHISDOCUMENT
Thisdeskreviewofrelevantaspectsofanecosystemapproachtofisheries(EAF)wasspecifically
preparedtofacilitatetheworkoftheFAOTechnicalConsultationontheEcosystem-based
FisheriesManagementheldinReykjavik(Iceland)from16to19September2002. Itwas
intendedtobeusedasbackgroundmaterialandsourceofdefinitionsandreferencesfortheEAF
guidelinestobeelaboratedatthemeeting.Amuchshorterversionwaspresentedatthe
SymposiumonMarineFisheries,Ecosystems,andSocietiesinWestAfrica: HalfaCenturyof
Change,heldinDakar(Senegal)from26to28June2002.Thedraftreceivedcommentsand
additional inputs during and after the meeting from many participants, particularly
DrsD.StaplesandK.Cochrane.
Distribution:
AllFAOMembersandAssociateMembers
InterestedNationsandInternationalOrganizations
FAOFisheriesDepartment
FAOFisheryOfficersinFAORegionalOffices
InterestedNon-governmentalOrganizations
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Abstract
Garcia,S.M.;Zerbi,A.;Atiaume,C.;DoChi,T.;Lasserre,G.
Theecosystemapproachtofisheries.Issues,terminology,principles,institutional
foundations,implementationandoutlook.
FAOFisheriesTechnicalPaper.No.443.Rome,FAO.2003.71p.
Ecosystemsarecomplexanddynamicnaturalunitsthatproducegoodsandservices
beyondthoseofbenefittofisheries.Becausefisherieshaveadirectimpactonthe
ecosystem,whichisalsoimpactedbyotherhumanactivities,theyneedtobemanagedin
anecosystemcontext.Themeaningoftheterms'ecosystemmanagement”,'ecosystem-
basedmanagement",'ecosystemapproachtofisheries’(EAF),etc.,arestillnotuniversally
definedandprogressivelyevolving.ThejustificationofEAFisevidentinthecharacteristics
ofanexploitedecosystemandtheimpactsresultingfromfisheriesandotheractivities.The
richsetofinternationalagreementsofrelevancetoEAFcontainsalargenumberof
principlesandconceptualobjectives. Both provideafundamentalguidanceanda
significant challenge for the implementation of EAF. The available international
instrumentsalsoprovidetheinstitutionalfoundationsforEAF.TheFAOCodeofConduct
forResponsibleFisheriesisparticularlyimportantinthisrespectandcontainsprovisions
forpracticallyallaspectsoftheapproach.OnemajordifficultyindefiningEAFlies
preciselyinturningtheavailableconceptsandprinciplesintooperationalobjectivesfrom
whichanEAFmanagementplanwouldmoreeasilybedeveloped.Thepaperdiscusses
thesetogetherwiththetypesofactionneededtoachievethem.ExperienceinEAF
implementationisstilllimitedbutsomeissuesarealreadyapparent,e.g.inadded
complexity,insufficientcapacity,slowimplementation,needforapragmaticapproach,
etc.Itisargued,inconclusion,thatthefutureofEAFandfisheriesdependsonthewayin
which the two fundamental concepts of fisheries management and ecosystem
management,andtheirrespectivestakeholders,willjoineffortsorcollide.
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Contents
Page
INTRODUCTION J
1. T1.E1RMIFiNshOerLieOsGMYanAaNgeDmePnAtRADIGMS 3i
1.2 EcosystemManagement 4
1.3 EcosystemApproach 5
1.4 Ecosystem-basedFisheriesManagementiEBFMt 6
1.5 EcosystemApproachtoFisheries(EAF) 6
1.6 IntegratedManagement(IM) 7
i ECOSYSTEMCHARACTERISTICS Z
2J Definition 1
U. ScaleandBoundaries Z
2.3 DynamicsandNaturalVariability 8
2.4 BiologicalOrganization 8
2.5 Structure 2
3, 3F.I1SHEORvIeErSalIlMIPmpAaCctTsONTHEECOSYSTEM K2)
33..23 IImmppaaccttoonnAthsesoEcnivaitredonamnedntDependentSpecies 1]_J0
33..54 GPoeoarrSLeolsesctaivnidtyG,hBoysctatFcihshainngdDiscards 11__22
4. FISHERIESVERSUSOTHERIMPACTS 12
4.1 OverallImpacts 1_2
4.2 RelativeImportanceofFisheriesandOtherImpacts 13
4.3 TheBlackSeaExample 13
4.4 ImpactonDiadromousFish V4
4.5 CompetitionBetweenHumansandMarineMammals 1_4
4.6 AllocationImplications Cl
5. INSTITUTIONALFOUNDATIONS 15
6. RELEVANCEOFTHECODEOFCONDUCT 12
666..21T. ARBiecoscdpoieuvcnetrtsfiootfryttahhenedEEncFvonisdryaosnntgmepemrnptdSopcies 211_029
6.4 SpeciesInterdependence 20
6.5 GeneralImpactfromFisheries 20
6.6 Selectivity,GhostFishing.Bvcalch,DiscardsandWaste 20
6.7 ImpactfromOtherActivities 20
6.8 ImprovedGovernance 21
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66..910 IUnntceegrrtaatiendtyM,aRniasgkeamnedntPrecaution Page2211
7. EAFPRINCIPLES 21
7.1 HumanandEcosystemWell-being 22
7.2 ResourceScarcity 22
7.3 MaximumAcceptableFishingLevel 22
7.4 MaximumBiologicalProductivity 23
7.5 ImpactReversibility 23
7.6 ImpactMinimization 23
7.7 RebuildingofResources 23
7.8 EcosystemIntegrity 23
7.9 SpeciesInterdependence 24
7.10 InstitutionalIntegration 24
7.11 Llncertaintv.RiskandPrecaution 24
7.12 CompatibilityofManagementMeasures 24
7.13 ThePolluterPaysPrinciple(PPP) 25
7.14 TheUserPaysPrinciple(UPP) 25
7.15 ThePrecautionaryPrincipleandPrecautionaryApproach 25
7.16 Subsidiarity,DecentralizationandParticipation 25
7.17 Equity 26
8. OPERATIONALOBJECTIVESANDMEASURES 26
8.1 Targets,Constraints,IndicatorsandReferencePoints 27
8.2 PrioritySetting 28
8.3 ImprovingConventionalManagement 28
8.4 ImprovingEcosystemWell-being 29
8.5 RebuildingEcosystems 30
8.6 MaintainingReproductiveCapacityofTargetResources 31
8.7 MaintainingBiologicalDiversity 32
8.8 ProtectingandEnhancingHabitats 32
8.9 ProtectingSelectedMarineAreas 35
8.10 ReducingBvcatchandDiscards 26
8.11 ReducingGhostFishing 36
8.12 ReducingUncertaintyandRisk 36
8.13 ImprovingtheInstitutionalSet-up 37
8.14 MatchinglurisdictionalandEAFBoundaries 38
8.15 ImprovingtheDecision-makingFramework 39
8.16 ImprovingStatisticsandInventories 40
8.17 MonitoringandIndicators 41
8.18 ImprovingResearchCapacity 42
8.19 ManagementPlanning 43
8.20 Certification 44
9. IMPLEMENTATIONISSUES 44
9.1 EAF:HurdleorOpportunity? 44
9.2 RhetoricVersusCommitment 45
9.3 Capacity,PragmatismandStepwiseImplementation 45
9.4 TheNeedforSubsectoralApproaches 46
RoleofNGOs 46
DISCUSSION:FUSIONORCOLLISION? 42
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Page50
AAnnnneexx21::MKaelyaEwvienPtrsinicniptlheesEfvoorltuhteioEncoofsyFsitsheemriAepsparnodacEhcosystemManagement 5619
Annex3:Glossary 65
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INTRODUCTION
Anyanalysisofthestateoffisheriesandtheirresourcesneedstobeundertakeninitsbroader
aquaticcontext.Inthatrespect,mostaquaticenvironmentsindicatealackofstewardship,illustrated
bygrowingdegradation,lossofhabitat,lackofcoherenceinaquaticsciencepolicy,inadequate
management-orientedresearch,poororinexistentlong-termmonitoring,lackofstrategic,integrated
planningofconflictinguses,etc.Therelativefailureofconventionalfisheriesmanagementhasbeen
abundantlydescribed(Garcia,1992;Garcia,1996a;GarciaandGrainger,1997;Sulinenand
Soboil,2003,andmanyothers).
Therealizationoftheneedtoexertsomeformofcontrolovermultipleusesofaseaareaemerged
duringthelatetwentiethcenturyasaresultofconcernsoverthehealthoftheoceans,theregulation
ofhumanactivities,theallocationofspace,resources,rightsandresponsibilities,andthegrowing
occurrenceofrelatedconflicts.Intheprocess,thedivisionofresourcesamongnations(throughthe
establishmentofsovereignrights)seemstohavebeengivenpriorityovertheissueoftheir
conservationforfuturegenerations.Theprocesswasacceleratedbythetechnologicalboominthe
n1a9v5a0ls,acwchiidecnhtsi.ncTrheiasseisdidlrluasmtartaitcedalblyytthheewoiolrlspdillfsisohfintghepoTwOeRrRaEnYdCthAeNrYisOkNof(c1o9n67t)amainndatiAoMnOfCroOm
CADIZ(1978),aswellasbyfishstockscollapsessuchastheIndiansardinella(inthe1940s),
Japanesesardine(inthe1940sand1950s),SouthAfricanpilchard(1965-66),Atlanticherring(1968-
69),Greenlandcod(1968),GeorgesBankhaddock(1968),Namibianpilchard(1970-71),Peruvian
anchoveta(1972-73),GulfofGuineasardinella(1973-74)andCanadianAtlanticcod(inthe1990s).
Theeffecthasbeenanincreasingsocietalconcernaboutthesustainabilityoffisheriesandtheir
environmentduringthelastfivedecades.Inordertoimprovethesector'simageandsustainability,
fisheriesgovernanceisrequiredtobecomemoreeffectiveandriskadverse,takingaccountofthe
ecosystem'slimitsaswellasbeingresponsivetoenvironmentalchangesandconservativeof
ecosystemcomponents.Fisheriesdevelopmentplanningwillneedtobemoreintegratedwiththe
planningandmanagementoftheothersectorssharingaquaticspaceandresources.Institutionsin
chargerespectivelyoffisheriesandenvironmentalmanagementneedtocollaboratemoreeffectively
andimprovesubstantiallytheireffectiveness,bettersustainedbyincreasednationalcommitments.
Implicitlyorexplicitly,mostoftherecentlyadoptedinstrumentsofrelevancetofisheriescallforan
approachtofisheriesgivingmoreattentiontotheecosystem.Whenconsideringtheimplicationsof
suchanapproach,fishingandcoastalnationswillneedtoensurethatthecontentoftheapproachis
inlinewithalreadyagreedinstruments(whetherbindingornot),complieswiththesovereignrights
ofcoastalStatesanddoesnotimplyobligationsordutiesbeyondthosealreadycommittedto.Most
oftheprinciplesandconceptualelementsofanEcosystemApproachtoFisheries(EAF)arealready
containedinanumberofbindingorvoluntaryarrangements,agreements,conventions(globalor
r1e9g8io2naUl)N,cCoodnevse,ntetico.,noofnditrheectLoarwionfditrheectSreeale(vhaenrecaeftteorfciaslhlereidest.heTh1e9s8e2inCsotnrvuemnetnitosn)sptaontfhreom19t9h5e
FAOCodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries(hereaftercalledtheCode)anditsInternational
PlansofAction(IPOAs),andfromthe1971 RamsarConventiontothe1992Conventionon
BiologicalDiversity(CBD),includingthe1995JakartaMandateonMarineandCoastalBiological
Diversity.
Morerecently,theFAO-lcelandConferenceonResponsibleFisheriesintheMarineEcosystem,
Reykjavik,October2001 (Sinclairela!.,2003)broughttheissuetotheforefrontoffisheries
requestingFAOtodevelopguidelines. Finally,theWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment
(WSSD,Johannesburg,September2002)“encouragetd)theapplicationby2010oftheecosystem
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approach,notingtheReykjavikDeclarationonResponsibleFisheriesintheMarineEcosystemand
DecisionV/6oltheConventiononBiologicalDiversity''.
TheCodeoffersasynthesisoftherequirementsofalltheaboveinstrumentsandprovidesthe
conceptualbasisandinstitutionalrequirementfor,interalia,ecosystemandhabitatprotection;
accountingforenvironmentalfactorsandnaturalvariability;reducingimpactsoffishingandother
activities;biodiversityconservation;multispeciesmanagement;protectionofendangeredspecies;
accounting for relations between populations; reducing land-based impacts and pollution;
integrationincoastalareamanagement:eliminationofghost-fishing;reductionofwasteand
discards;precautionaryapproach;delimitationofecosystemboundariesandjurisdictions,aswellas
adaptedinstitutionsandgovernance.
Implementationremainsthe"acidtest'ofanyapproachtomanagement. EAFimplementation
faces,andneedstoresolve,anumberofdifficulties,manyofwhicharealreadyhamperingthe
effectivenessofmoreconventionalfisheriesmanagement.Thesedifficultiesrelateto,interalialack
of information, lack of scientific assessment, non-matching ofecosystem and jurisdiction
boundaries,appreciationoftheroleofprotectedareas,unclearorconflictingobjectives,lackof
consensusaboutecolabelling,insufficientcollaborationbetweeninstitutionsinchargeoffisheries
andenvironmentalmanagementatnationalorregionallevels,lackofintegrationoffisheriesin
coastalareasmanagement,needformoretransparencyandparticipation,lackofcapacityfor
decentralization,redefinition(andstrengthening)oftheroleofscience,relationsbetweentradeand
theenvironment(andtheroleoftheWorldTradeOrganization),and,lastbutnotleast,the
potentiallylargesocio-economicandpoliticalcostsoftransition.
Thisdocumentreviewsbriefly: theevolutionofterminologyandunderlyingparadigms;some
selectedecosystemcharacteristics;theimpactoffisheriesandofotheractivitieswithwhichfisheries
compete;theinstitutionalfoundationsoftheapproachwiththeparticularroleplayedbytheCode;
theconceptualobjectivesandprinciplesofrelevanceforEAF;selectedoperationalobjectivesand
relatedmeasuresandactions,andselectedimplementationissues.Inconclusion,wediscussthe
likelyevolutionoftheapproachandthepotential"fusion"or'collision'betweentheparadigms
andoverlappinggroupsoffisheriesandecosystemmanagementstakeholders.
Acknowledgements
Theauthorswishtoexpresstheirgratefulthankstothemanycolleagueswhomadecommentsand
gavesuggestionsontheearlydraftofthisdocumentduringandaftertheFAOExpertConsultation
on Ecosystem-based FisheriesManagement, Reykjavik, Iceland, 16-19September2002, and
particularlytoDrsK.L.CochraneandD.Staples.
ThanksarealsoduetoMsEmanuelaD'Antoniforthephotomontageonthecover,madeonthe
basisofmaterialavailableintheFAOMediaBaseandFishBaseBestPhotos(by).E.Randalland
jjPhoto).
1 Paragraph29dofthePlanofImplementationfortheWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment.
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