Table Of ContentTHE CRIME OF AGGRESSION: A COMMENTARY
The2010Kampala Amendments tothe RomeStatute havepavedthewayforthe
InternationalCriminalCourttoprosecutethe‘supremecrime’underinternational
law: the crime of aggression. This landmark commentary provides the first com-
prehensive analysis of the history, theory, legal interpretation and future of the
crimeofaggressionafterKampala.Aswellasexplainingthepositionsofthemain
actors in the negotiations, the authoritative team of leading scholars and practi-
tioners set out how countries have themselves criminalized illegal war-making in
domestic law and practice. In light of the anticipated activation of the Court’s
jurisdiction over this crime in the very near future, this book offers a meticulous
legalanalysisofhowtounderstandthematerialandmentalelementsofthecrime
ofaggressionasdefinedatKampala.AlongsideTheTravauxPréparatoiresofthe
Crime of Aggression (Cambridge, 2011), this commentary provides the definitive
resourceforanyoneconcernedwiththeillegaluseofforce.
claus kreß is Professor of Criminal Law and Public International Law and
Director of the Institute for International Peace and Security Law at the
University of Cologne. Previously, he practised in the German Federal Ministry
ofJusticeonmattersofcriminallawandinternationallaw,andhasbeenamember
ofGermany’sdelegationsinthenegotiationsregardingtheInternationalCriminal
Courtsince1998.
stefanbarrigaservedastheprincipalLegalAdvisertothechiefnegotiatorson
the crime of aggression from 2003 to 2010, and is widely acknowledged as the
mainexpertinchargeofthedraftingoftheWorkingGroup’sproposals,papersand
reportsduringthatperiod.HeisnowtheDeputyPermanentRepresentativeofthe
PrincipalityofLiechtensteintotheUnitedNationsinNewYork.
CRIME OF AGGRESSION LIBRARY
Editors
ClausKreßandStefanBarriga
ManagingEditor
LeenaGrover
AssistantEditors
DanielKrieger,ErinPobjie,AstridReisingerCoraciniandLeonievonHoltzendorff
THE CRIME OF AGGRESSION:
A COMMENTARY
UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom
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Firstpublished2017
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Kreß,Claus/Barriga,Stefan,editors.
Thecrimeofaggression:acommentary/ClausKreß/StefanBarriga
Cambridge,UnitedKingdom:CambridgeUniversityPress,2017.|
Series:Crimeofaggressionlibrary
LCCN2016014772|ISBN9781107015265
LCSH:Aggression(Internationallaw)
LCCKZ7140.C752016|DDC341.6/2–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttp://lccn.loc.gov/2016014772
ISBN978-1-107-01526-5Setof2hardbackvolumes
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ISBN978-1-107-16593-9Volume2Hardback
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Contents
ListofContributors pagexxviii
Foreword xxxix
ChristianWenaweserandZeidRa’adZeidAl-Hussein
Acknowledgements xl
VOLUME 1
Introduction:TheCrimeofAggressionandtheInternational
LegalOrder
ClausKreß 1
PART I HISTORY 19
1 TheFirstWorldWar,WilhelmIIandArticle227:TheOrigin
oftheIdeaof‘Aggression’inInternationalCriminalLaw
KirstenSellars 21
1.1 Introduction 21
1.2 ThePurposesofaTrial 22
1.3 NewLawtoMeetChangedCircumstances 24
1.4 BritishRetreatonAggression 25
1.5 ResponsibilityforTreatyBreaches 27
1.6 DiscordoveranInternationalTrial 29
1.7 TheProblemofSovereignImmunity 31
1.8 TheMajorityandtheDissenters 33
1.9 TheCreationofArticle227 34
1.10 TheTrialPlansTakeShape 37
1.11 TheDiscoveriesatWilhelmstrasse 40
1.12 Conclusion 46
2 TheCrimesagainstPeacePrecedent
CarrieMcDougall 49
2.1 Introduction 49
2.2 TheAlliedInventionofCrimesagainstPeace 50
v
vi Contents
2.3 TheStateActElementoftheCrime 52
2.3.1 WhatareWarsofAggression? 53
2.3.2 QuantifyingorQualifyingWar 55
2.3.3 WeKnowAggressionWhenWeSeeIt 58
2.3.4 WarwiththeObjectoftheOccupationorConquest
oftheTerritoryofAnotherStateorPartThereof 63
2.3.5 WarDeclaredinSupportofaThirdParty’sWarofAggression 68
2.3.6 WarwiththeObjectofDisablingaState’sCapacitytoProvide
AssistancetoaThirdStateVictimofaWarofAggression
InitiatedbytheAggressor 69
2.3.7 AWarWagedinIndividualorCollectiveSelf-Defenceisnot
aWarofAggression 70
2.3.8 WhatisaWarinViolationofInternationalTreaties,Agreements
andAssurances? 72
2.3.9 InvasionsandtheStatusof‘ActsofAggression’ 72
2.3.10 TheStateActElementofCrimesagainstPeace:Conclusion 76
2.4 IndividualCriminalResponsibility 78
2.4.1 LinesintheSand:TheRelevanceofRolesandResponsibilities 80
2.4.2 PrincipalPerpetrators:ALeadershipCrime? 82
2.4.3 Planning,Preparing,InitiatingorWagingWarsofAggression:
ActusReus 85
2.4.4 Planning,Preparing,InitiatingorWagingWarsofAggression:
MensRea 87
2.5 IndividualCriminalResponsibilityReinterpreted 89
2.5.1 WhoCanCommitCrimesagainstPeace? 89
2.5.2 Planning,Preparing,InitiatingorWagingWarsofAggression 96
2.5.3 MensRea 100
2.5.4 IndividualConduct:Conclusion 102
2.6 Conclusion:TheCrimesagainstPeacePrecedent 103
3 TheLegacyoftheTokyoDissentson‘CrimesagainstPeace’
KirstenSellars 113
3.1 Introduction 113
3.2 TheDissentsonCrimesagainstPeace 113
3.3 The1950Watershed 117
3.4 TheColdWarDebates 122
3.5 TheEmergenceoftheNon-AlignedStates 123
3.6 TheGoaEffect 126
3.7 DebatesaboutaDefinition 130
3.8 ObjectiveandSubjectiveCriteria 131
3.9 NoRevivalofCrimesagainstPeace 133
3.10 TheSelf-DeterminationException 135
3.11 TheTideEbbsontheTokyoDissents 138
Contents vii
4 TheGeneralAssembly’sDefinitionoftheActofAggression
ThomasBruha 142
4.1 Introduction 142
4.2 HistoricalBackgroundandGenesisoftheDefinition 143
4.2.1 FirstWorldWarandLeagueofNationsEra 143
4.2.2 SecondWorldWar,FoundingoftheUnitedNations
andLondonCharter 145
4.2.3 EarlyWorkoftheGeneralAssembly,1946–67 147
4.2.4 OntheWaytoGAResolution3314,1967–74 150
4.2.4.1 AChangingPoliticalEnvironment 150
4.2.4.2 OrganisationofWork:TheConsensusProcedure 152
4.3 AnalysisoftheGeneralAssembly’sDefinitionofAggression 154
4.3.1 FunctionoftheDefinitionofAggression 154
4.3.2 DescriptionoftheActofAggression 156
4.3.2.1 TheCentralCompromise 156
4.3.2.2 TheCompositeDefinition 158
4.3.2.2.1 GeneralDefinition 158
4.3.2.2.2 ActsQualifyingasAggression 160
4.3.2.2.3 TheDoubleOpennessoftheDefinition 165
4.3.3 LegalConsequencesofAggression 166
4.4 Impactofthe1974DefinitionofAggression 168
4.4.1 TheSecurityCouncil 168
4.4.2 TheGeneralAssembly 169
4.4.3 TheInternationalCourtofJustice 170
4.5 SummaryandConclusions 172
5 ThePracticeoftheSecurityCouncilRegardingtheConcept
ofAggression
NicolaosStrapatsas 178
5.1 Introduction 178
5.2 SecurityCouncilReferral 180
5.2.1 SecurityCouncilReferralunderArticle15terWithout
aDeterminationofAggression 180
5.2.2 SecurityCouncilDeterminationofAggressionWithout
aReferralunderArticle15bis 181
5.3 TheAggressorState 181
5.3.1 TheSecurityCouncilDoesNot(Properly)IdentifytheAggressor 181
5.3.2 CasesofControversialStatehood 184
5.3.3 ActofAggressionCommittedAgainstanUnidentifiedState 185
5.4 TheActofAggression 186
5.4.1 ActsReferredtobytheSecurityCouncilAppearinArticle8bis 186
5.4.2 ActsReferredtobytheSecurityCouncilareConsistent
withArticle8bis 188
viii Contents
5.4.3 TheSecurityCouncilReferstoActsPotentiallyInconsistent
withArticle8bis 190
5.4.4 TheSecurityCouncilDoesnotRefertoAnySpecificActs 191
5.4.5 TheSecurityCouncilCondemnsSuccessiveActsofArmed
ForceasAggression 193
5.5 SecurityCouncilDeterminationofanActofAggression 194
5.5.1 LanguageCompatiblewithArticle8biswithoutExpressly
ReferringtoAggression 194
5.5.2 APresidentialStatementCondemningaParticularUse
ofArmedForce 199
5.6 Conclusion 203
6 TheInternationalCourtofJusticeandtheConceptofAggression
DapoAkandeandAntoniosTzanakopoulos 214
6.1 Introduction 214
6.2 APlethoraofTerms(andConcepts) 216
6.3 TheICJontheUseofForce 218
6.3.1 General 218
6.3.2 UseofForce,ArmedAttackandAggression:
TheGravityThreshold 220
6.3.3 TheParallelsbetweenArmedAttackandAggression 221
6.4 TryingtoMakeSenseofitAll 224
6.5 Conclusion 228
7 TheInternationalLawCommission’sWorkonAggression
JamesCrawford 233
7.1 Introduction 233
7.2 TheCodeofCrimesagainstthePeaceandSecurityofMankind 234
7.3 TheStatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt 238
7.4 TheDraftArticlesontheResponsibilityofStates 240
7.5 Conclusion 242
8 NegotiationsontheRomeStatute,1995–98
RogerS.Clark 244
8.1 Introduction 244
8.2 TheInternationalLawCommissionDraft 245
8.3 The1995AdHocCommittee 247
8.4 ThePreparatoryCommittee,1996–98 251
8.5 Rome,15June–13July1998(TotheBrink) 260
8.6 TheEndGameinRome,14–17July1998 264
Contents ix
PART II THEORY 271
9 JustWarTheoryandtheCrimeofAggression
LarryMay 273
9.1 Introduction 273
9.2 DefiningAggressionintheJustWarTradition 273
9.3 TheCrimeofAggression 276
9.4 LessonsforToday 278
9.5 ContemporaryJustWarTheory 281
9.6 ObjectionsandReplies 284
10 TheModernDoctrinalDebateontheCrimeofAggression
FlorianJeßberger 287
10.1 Introduction 287
10.2 ‘Lesnouveauxcourants.Laguerred’agression,crimeinternational’ 288
10.3 The‘SupremeInternationalCrime’:PunishmentExPost
FactoorNot? 294
10.4 IntoOblivion 297
10.5 ButanOrdinaryCoreCrime 299
10.6 FromPellatoMay:SomeConcludingObservations 300
11 TheSpecificityoftheCrimeofAggression
AstridReisingerCoraciniandPålWrange 307
11.1 Introduction 307
11.2 LegalElements 309
11.2.1 LeadershipElement 309
11.2.2 AnActofState 312
11.2.2.1 InternationalJurisdictionoverStateActs
PresupposesStateConsent 315
11.2.2.2 NationalJurisdictionoverStateActs
PresupposesStateConsent 317
11.2.3 TheTargetisaState 317
11.2.4 TheCrimeonlyCoverstheMostSeriousForms
oftheProhibitedActs 321
11.2.5 TheCrimeofAggressionReferstotheIusAdBellum 323
11.2.6 UndertheMandateoftheSecurityCouncil 324
11.2.7 AllegedVaguenessoftheDefinitionoftheCrime 327
11.3 OtherCharacteristics 329
11.3.1 PracticalConsequences:InvestigationsandArrests 330
11.3.2 IstheCrimeofAggressionMorePolitical? 331
11.3.2.1 TheCrimeofAggressionInvolvesPoliticalActs 331
11.3.2.2 ACrimeofAggressionisConductedasPart
ofaPoliticalStruggle 333
