Table Of ContentSustainable Utilization of
Carbon Dioxide in Waste Management
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Sustainable Utilization
of Carbon Dioxide in
Waste Management
Moving toward reducing environmental impact
Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed
Uberbinder Limited, Oxford, United Kingdom
EX Scientific Consultants, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Maisa M. El Gamal
Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Suhaib M. Hameedi
Sunlit Environmental Studies & Research, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
In association with
Evan K. Paleologos
Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Elsevier
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I dedicate this work to my divine wife, who has provided me
with endless support over the last 40 years, and to our two
beloved daughters.
Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed
I dedicate this work to my dear husband for his endless social
and technical support and my gratitude to all my family
members for their love and prayers.
Maisa El Gamal
To my parents (the late father Mohammad Hameedi, and the
blessed mother Ghalia Jinbaz) for their wise guidance, to my
brothers and sisters for their continuous support, to my dear
wife for her generous support, and to my cheerful kids Yaman
and Tayma. I thank Prof. A.M.O. Mohamed and Dr. M. El Gamal
for giving me the chance to share their success, also to all my
teachers at school and university and to everyone who added a
positive spot to my knowledge.
Suhaib Hameedi
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Contents
Abouttheauthors xiii 1.6 Case study 2: development of EoW
Preface xv criteria for secondary aggregates from
industrial processes 47
1.6.1 Analysis of coal combustion
1. Emerging carbon-based waste
residues (CCR) 47
management sustainable practices
1.6.2 Analysis of iron and steel slags
1.1 Introduction 1 production residues (ISSPR) 52
1.2 Waste management principles and 1.6.3 EoW criteria for reprocessed
approaches 4 aggregates derived from ISSPR 56
1.2.1 Waste management hierarchy 4 1.7 Case study 3: development of EoW
1.2.2 Emerging approaches in waste criteria for carbon capture and
management 5 utilization (CCU) products 56
1.3 Circular economy (CE) 7 1.7.1 Input materials of CCU-based
1.3.1 CE definitions 7 products 56
1.3.2 CE-based legislation 10 1.7.2 Production 58
1.3.3 CE drivers, challenges, inhibitors, 1.7.3 Economic assessment 58
and enablers 12 1.7.4 Marketing of CCU products 58
1.3.4 CE and sustainable development 12 1.7.5 EoW criteria for CCU products 59
1.3.5 CE monitoring indicators 14 1.8 Summary and concluding remarks 61
1.3.6 Carbon reprocessing 19 References 61
1.4 End-of-waste criteria 19
1.4.1 Regulatory standing of EoW
2. Carbon capture and utilization
criteria 20
1.4.2 Development of EoW leaching 2.1 Introduction 67
limit values 27 2.2 Carbon capture 69
1.4.3 Guiding principles for 2.3 Carbon capture cost 73
establishing EoW criteria 27 2.4 Carbon dioxide transport 77
1.4.4 Impact assessment 33 2.5 Carbon storage (CS) technologies 77
1.4.5 Drafting possible EoW criteria 2.6 Carbon utilization (CU) technologies 77
proposals 35 2.6.1 CU utilization options 79
1.5 Case study 1: development of EoW 2.7 Global CO2 utilization projects 86
criteria for construction and demolition 2.8 Carbon capture and utilization eco-
reprocessed waste aggregates 37 nomic evaluation 95
1.5.1 Material analysis: sources, uses, 2.9 Carbon binding capacity in carbon-
and treatment 37 based products 96
1.5.2 Qualityassurance 39 2.10 Market potential of carbon-based
1.5.3 Environmental impact 41 products 99
1.5.4 Related regulations 43 2.11 Policies and regulations to support
1.5.5 Market evaluation 44 carbon capture, storage, and
1.5.6 Public perception or consumer utilizations 102
acceptance 45 2.11.1 The European Union’s current
1.5.7 EoW criteria for C&D waste 45 regulatory framework 102
vii
viii Contents
2.11.2 CCU regulatory challenges 5. Mineral carbonation
and developments 106
5.1 Introduction 163
2.11.3 GHG accountability 108
5.2 Carbonation of alkaline materials 164
2.11.4 Barriers to the development of
5.2.1 Natural carbonation 164
CCU 108
5.2.2 Accelerated carbonation 164
2.11.5 EU action plan for a circular
5.2.3 Alkaline wastes as adsorbents 167
economy 109
5.3 Principles of accelerated carbonation
2.12 Summary and concluding remarks 109
reaction 168
References 110
5.3.1 Process chemistry 168
5.3.2 Ion equilibrium in solution 169
3. Assessment of carbon dioxide
5.3.3 Carbonate precipitation 170
utilization technologies
5.3.4 Formation of solid carbonates 171
3.1 Introduction 115 5.3.5 Calcite crystal growth 171
3.2 Technical and economic assessment 116 5.3.6 Hydro-magnesite crystal
3.2.1 Goals of the technical and growth 173
economic assessment 117 5.3.7 Thermodynamic stability 175
3.2.2 Scope of the study 118 5.3.8 Solid state reaction kinetics 175
3.2.3 Inventory/record 121 5.4 Controlling parameters 176
3.2.4 Indicators/indices 124 5.4.1 Surface activation 177
3.2.5 Interpretation/explanation 125 5.4.2 Dissolution 177
3.2.6 Reporting 125 5.4.3 Carbon dioxide concentration 178
3.3 Life-cycle assessment 125 5.4.4 Reaction temperature 182
3.3.1 Goal of the study 126 5.4.5 Solution pH 182
3.3.2 Scope of the study 127 5.4.6 Liquid-to-solid ratio 182
3.3.3 Life-cycle inventory 131 5.4.7 Formation of passivating product
3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 131 layer 183
3.3.5 Life cycle sensitivityanalysis 140 5.4.8 Nature of the product 183
3.3.6 Life cycle interpretation and 5.5 Useful carbonated products 183
reporting 143 5.5.1 Calcium-based carbonates 185
3.4 Summary and concluding remarks 144 5.5.2 Magnesium-based carbonates 187
References 145 5.6 Utilization of carbonated products 188
5.7 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 189
4. Carbonation reaction kinetics 5.8 Summary and concluding remarks 189
References 193
4.1 Introduction 149
4.2 Chemical reactions 149
6. Carbonation technologies
4.2.1 Solids 149
4.2.2 Carbonation of alkaline solid 6.1 Introduction 201
waste 150 6.2 Technology readiness 201
4.3 Reaction models 151 6.3 Direct gas-solid carbonation 201
4.3.1 Shrinking core model 151 6.4 Single step aqueous processes 201
4.3.2 Progressive-conversion model 151 6.5 Multistep aqueous processes 202
4.3.3 Particle-pellet model 151 6.5.1 Technologies for natural
4.4 Unreacted core shrinking model for serpentine carbonation 202
spherical particles 152 6.5.2 Technologies for alkaline waste
4.4.1 Theoretical development 152 carbonation 204
4.4.2 Determination of the 6.6 Case studies for the use of the
rate-controlling step 155 MGF process: I. cement kiln
4.4.3 Kinetic expressions for dust (CKD) 207
diffusion-limited reactions 155 6.7 Case studies for the use of MGF
4.5 Grain model 159 process: II. steel slag 207
4.6 Other approaches 161 6.7.1 Hydration process 207
4.7 Summary and concluding remarks 161 6.7.2 Carbonation process 208
References 161 6.7.3 Extent of carbonation 209
Contents ix
6.8 Case studies for the use of MGF 8. Carbonation of fly ash
processes: III. production of
8.1 Introduction 267
sewerage pipes 210
8.2 Classification of fly ash 267
6.8.1 Modified sulfur concrete 211
8.3 Sources of fly ash 268
6.8.2 Sulfur modification 211
8.3.1 Coal flyash 268
6.8.3 Production of sulfur concrete 212
8.3.2 Municipal solid waste
6.8.4 Balanced mix design 212
incineration ash 270
6.8.5 Durabilityof MSC 214
8.3.3 Modern flayash 272
6.9 Case studies for the use of MGF
8.4 Fly ash utilizations 273
process: IV. technologydemonstration
8.4.1 Neutralization/treatment agent 273
in underground sewerage
environment 214 8.4.2 SO2 capture 273
6.9.1 Material composition 216 8.4.3 CO2 sequestration 273
8.4.4 Soil stabilization 273
6.9.2 Field testing conditions 216
8.4.5 Cement production or
6.9.3 Environmental impact 216
cement-based materials 273
6.10 Case studies for the use of MGF
8.4.6 Pastes and mortars 276
process: V. technologydemonstration
8.4.7 Hollow blocks 276
in saline and variable acidic
8.4.8 Aggregates 276
environments 223
8.4.9 Ceramic tiles 276
6.10.1 Strength development 224
8.4.10 Fire resistance products 276
6.10.2 Structural changes 225
8.4.11 Adsorbents and catalysts 276
6.10.3 Influence of aqueous
8.4.12 Filler material in polymer
environment on strength 225
composites 277
6.10.4 Leachability 225
8.4.13 Agriculture application 277
6.11 Summary and concluding remarks 227
8.5 Environmental risks 277
References 228
8.6 Carbonation methods 277
8.7 Chemical reactions of CO
7. Laboratory carbonation methods: 2
sequestration by fly ash 278
testing and evaluation
8.8 Thermodynamic simulations of phase
7.1 Introduction 233 equilibria 278
7.2 Experimental methods 233 8.9 Treatment methods 280
7.2.1 Fluidized bed reactor 233 8.9.1 Direct gas carbonation 281
7.2.2 Spouted bed reactor 239 8.9.2 Direct semi-dry carbonation 283
7.2.3 High gravity rotating packed 8.9.3 Direct aqueous carbonation 286
bed 240 8.9.4 Indirect carbonation 291
7.2.4 Ultrasound method 245 8.9.5 Synthetic CaO-based solid
7.2.5 Autoclave carbonation 250 sorbents 297
7.2.6 Calcium looping 252 8.10 Summaryand concluding remarks 312
7.3 CO2 experimental uptake 254 References 313
7.3.1 Mass gain method 254 Further reading 324
7.3.2 Mass curve method 254
7.3.3 Gas analyzer method 254
9. Carbonation of steel slag
7.3.4 Coulometric titration
method 256 9.1 Introduction 327
7.3.5 Pressure drop method 256 9.2 Sources and characteristics of slags 327
7.3.6 Thermogravimetric (TG) 9.3 Steel and iron slags utilizations 330
analysis 257 9.3.1 Cement production and concrete
7.4 Carbonation efficiency and ratio 260 manufacturing industries 331
7.4.1 Theoretical uptake 260 9.3.2 Pavement and road applications 331
7.4.2 Sequestration efficiency 262 9.3.3 Geotechnical applications 332
7.4.3 Sequestration ratio 262 9.3.4 Hydraulic barriers 332
7.5 Summary and concluding remarks 262 9.3.5 Agriculture application 332
References 263 9.3.6 Waste management 332
