Table Of ContentSpecialised Anti-Corruption Institutions Specialised
REVIEW OF MODELS Anti-Corruption
Anti-Corruption Network for Eastern Europe and Central Asia Institutions
International anti-corruption treaties, including the UN Convention against Corruption, require
member states to establish two types of anti-corruption institutions – one to prevent corruption REVIEW OF MODELS
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Specialised
Anti-Corruption
Institutions
REVIEW OF MODELS
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3
Foreword
Although its effects on democratic institutions and economic and social development
have long been apparent, the fight against corruption has only recently been placed high
on the international policy agenda. Today, many international organisations are
addressing the global and multi-faceted challenge of fighting corruption. The OECD
provided a major contribution to this important effort in 1997 with the Convention on
Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions.
Soon after, in 2002, the Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption
came into force. It develops common standards concerning corruption-related offences,
and requires its parties to create specialised authorities for fighting corruption.
The UN Convention Against Corruption, which came into force in 2005, is the most
universal in its approach; it covers a very broad range of issues including prevention of
corruption, criminalisation of corruption, international co-operation, and recovery of
assets generated by corruption. It also requires its parties to implement specialised bodies
responsible for preventing corruption and for combating corruption through law
enforcement.
In addition to mandating anti-corruption bodies, these international conventions
establish standards for their effective operation: these bodies should be independent from
undue interference, specialised in corruption, and have sufficient resources and powers to
meet their challenging tasks.
This book analyses the main tasks involved in preventing and combating corruption,
and presents practical solutions to ensure independence and specialisation of – and
resources for – anti-corruption bodies. It further describes different forms of
specialisation implemented in various countries around the world (e.g. Hong Kong,
Latvia, Spain, Romania, Norway, the UK, France and Slovenia) and describes 14 anti-
corruption agencies. Finally, it provides analysis of key factors which can lead anti-
corruption bodies to success or failure and supplies a rich body of country-specific
information, practical facts and contact details.
This book was prepared within the project on Reform of the Law Enforcement
System and Strengthening Specialised Services for Combating Corruption in Ukraine,
funded by the US Department of State and implemented by the OECD Anti-Corruption
Network for Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Its purpose is to support anti-corruption
reform in the countries in this region by examining international standards, national
models and good practices for establishing institutional frameworks to combat corruption.
The OECD supports several regional anti-corruption initiatives in non-member
countries. The Anti-Corruption Network for Eastern Europe and Central Asia is one such
programme; it assists the countries in the region in their fight against corruption by
providing a forum for exchange of experience and elaborating best practices. Information
about the Network’s activities is available on its Web site, www.oecd.org/corruption/acn.
SPECIALISED ANTI-CORRUPTION INSTITUTIONS: REVIEW OF MODELS – ISBN-978-92-64-03979-7 © OECD 2008
4
Acknowledgements
The report was prepared by Gorana Klemenčič and Janez Stusek, Faculty of Criminal
Justice and Security Studies, University of Maribor, Slovenia and Inese Gaika, Anti-
Corruption Division, OECD. Olga Savran and Arturas Dudoitis, Anti-Corruption
Division, OECD, helped the main authors to finalise the report. Helen Green, Anti-
Corruption Division, OECD, edited the final report.
The report has benefited from comments and valuable information provided in the
course of its preparation by the participating institutions. The authors gratefully
acknowledge the comments and information provided by the Anti-Corruption Unit,
Albania and the Independent Commission against Corruption of Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region in summer 2005 and in May 2006 by Corrupt Practices
Investigation Bureau (Singapore), Special Investigation Office (Lithuania), Corruption
Prevention and Combating Bureau (Latvia), Special Prosecutors Office for the Repression
of Economic Offences Related to Corruption (Spain), National Anti-Corruption
Directorate (Romania), Office for the Suppression of Corruption (Croatia), Central Office
for the Repression of Corruption (Belgium), the National Authority for Investigation and
Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime (Norway), Central Service for
Prevention of Corruption (France) and the State Commission for Prevention of
Corruption (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia).
The OECD Secretariat would like to thank the Department of State of the United
States for their financial support provided through the project on Reform of the Law
Enforcement System in Ukraine and Strengthening Specialised Services for Combating
Corruption.
SPECIALISED ANTI-CORRUPTION INSTITUTIONS: REVIEW OF MODELS – ISBN-978-92-64-03979-7 © OECD 2008
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Table of Contents
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................... 9
Part I
International Standards and Models of Anti-corruption Institutions
Chapter 1 Sources of International Standards ............................................................................... 17
Twenty guiding principles for the fight against corruption ................................................................ 18
Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption ............................................................ 18
United Nations Convention against Corruption ................................................................................. 18
Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2 Elements of International Standards ............................................................................. 21
Main anti-corruption functions ........................................................................................................... 21
Forms of specialisation ...................................................................................................................... 23
Independence and accountability ....................................................................................................... 24
Adequate resources and powers ......................................................................................................... 27
Co-operation with civil society and private sector, inter-agency co-operation .................................. 28
Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 29
Chapter 3 Models of Specialised Anti-Corruption Institutions .................................................... 31
Multi-purpose agencies with law enforcement powers ...................................................................... 31
Law enforcement type institutions ..................................................................................................... 32
Preventive, policy development and co-ordination institutions ......................................................... 32
Assessing the performance of specialised anti-corruption institutions .............................................. 33
Rationales for establishing anti-corruption institutions and selecting the model ............................... 34
Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 38
Part II
Selected Models of Specialised Anti-corruption Institutions
Chapter 4 Multi-purpose Agencies with Law Enforcement Powers ............................................. 43
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: Independent Commission against Corruption ............. 43
Singapore: Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau ........................................................................... 52
Lithuania: Special Investigation Service ............................................................................................ 58
Latvia: Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau ...................................................................... 67
Notes .................................................................................................................................................. 77
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Chapter 5 Law Enforcement Type Institutions .............................................................................. 79
Specialised Prosecution Services ....................................................................................................... 79
Spain: Special Prosecutors Office for the Repression of Corruption-Related Economic Offences 79
Romania: National Anti-corruption Directorate ............................................................................. 85
Croatia: Office for the Suppression of Corruption and Organised Crime ...................................... 91
Specialised Police Services ................................................................................................................ 97
Belgium: Central Office for the Repression of Corruption ............................................................ 97
Norway: The Norwegian National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution
of Economic and Environmental Crime (Økokrim) .................................................................. 100
United Kingdom: Serious Fraud Office ........................................................................................ 107
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 114
Chapter 6 Preventive and Policy Co-ordination Institutions ...................................................... 117
France: Central Service for Prevention of Corruption ..................................................................... 117
Slovenia: Commission for the Prevention of Corruption ................................................................. 125
The Former Federal Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: State Commission
for Prevention of Corruption ......................................................................................................... 130
Albania: Anti-Corruption Commission and Monitoring Group ....................................................... 135
Sources ............................................................................................................................................. 139
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 140
SPECIALISED ANTI-CORRUPTION INSTITUTIONS: REVIEW OF MODELS – ISBN-978-92-64-03979-7 © OECD 2008
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Abbreviations
ACMG Anti-Corruption Monitoring Group (Albania)
ACPO Special Prosecutors Office for the Repression of Economic Offences Related to
Corruption (Spain)
ACU Anti-Corruption Unit
CPC Commission for the Prevention of Corruption (Slovenia)
CPIB Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (Singapore)
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
KNAB Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (Latvia)
GCFAC Governmental Commission of the Fight against Corruption (Albania)
GRECO Group of States against Corruption
ICAC Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)
NAD National Anti-corruption Directorate (Romania)
NAPO National Anti-Corruption Prosecutor’s Office (Romania)
OCRC Central Office for the Repression of Corruption (Belgium)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ØKOKRIM The National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and
Environmental Crime (Norway)
PACO Programme against Corruption and Organized Crime in South-Eastern Europe
SCPC Central Service for Prevention of Corruption (France)
STT Special Investigation Service (Lithuania)
TI Transparency International
UNCAC United Nations Convention against Corruption
USKOK Office for the Suppression of Corruption and Organized Crime (Croatia)
SPECIALISED ANTI-CORRUPTION INSTITUTIONS: REVIEW OF MODELS – ISBN-978-92-64-03979-7 © OECD 2008
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY –
Executive Summary
One of the best known specialised anti-corruption institutions - the Hong Kong’s
Independent Commission against Corruption - was established in 1974. The Commission
has contributed significantly to Hong Kong’s success in reducing corruption. Inspired by
this success story, many countries around the world, including in Eastern Europe, decided
to establish specialised bodies to prevent and combat corruption. Establishing such bodies
was often seen as the only way to reduce widespread corruption, as existing institutions
were considered too weak for the task.
Recent international treaties against corruption require their member states to
establish specialised bodies dedicated to fighting and preventing corruption. The United
Nations Convention against Corruption requires the existence of two types of anti-
corruption institutions:
• a body or bodies that prevent corruption;
• a body, bodies or persons specialised in combating corruption through law enforcement.
Both the prevention of corruption and combating corruption through law enforcement
involves a large number of multidisciplinary functions. When considering establishing or
strengthening anti-corruption bodies, countries need to take into consideration the full
range of anti-corruption functions, including the following:
• Policy development, research, monitoring and co-ordination. These functions
encompass research of trends and levels of corruption, and assessment of effectiveness
of anti-corruption measures. They further include policy development and co-
ordination, including elaboration of anti-corruption strategies and action plans and
monitoring and co-ordination of implementation measures. Another important function
is serving as a focal point for international co-operation.
• Prevention of corruption in power structures. These functions focus at promoting
ethics inside public institutions and include elaboration and implementation of special
measures concerning public service rules and restrictions, and administering
disciplinary punishment for non-compliance with them. More specifically, these
functions may include prevention of conflict of interest; assets declaration by public
officials, verification of submitted information and public access to declarations.
Besides, these function aim to prevent corruption through state financial control, anti-
money laundering measures, measures in public procurement and
licensing/permits/certificates systems. Finally, preventive functions aim to promote
transparency of public service and public access to information and ensure effective
control of political party financing.
• Education and awareness raising. This area includes developing and implementing
educational programmes for public, academic institutions and civil servants; organising
public awareness campaigns; and working with the media, NGOs, businesses and the
public at large.
SPECIALISED ANTI-CORRUPTION INSTITUTIONS: REVIEW OF MODELS – ISBN-978-92-64-03979-7 © OECD 2008
