Table Of ContentSong of the Earth
Song of the Earth
Understanding Geology and Why It Matters
ELISABETH ERVIN-B LANKENHEIM
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2021933128
ISBN 978– 0– 19– 750246– 4
DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197502464.001.0001
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
For those of all ages
who want to deepen their knowledge of the Earth,
and in particular for my students present and past, you inspire me.
Contents
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction: Why Geology? 1
1. Geology Emerges as a Science: European Roots 6
European Scientific Geological Developments 8
Nicolaus Steno 8
James Hutton 12
Abraham Werner 17
Etheldred Benett 19
William “Strata” Smith 21
William Buckland 22
Charles Lyell 25
Mary Anning 27
Louis Agassiz in Europe 31
Early French Geologists 32
2. Geology Emerges as a Science: On the Other Side of the Pond 34
American Scientific Geological Developments 34
Louis Agassiz in the United States 35
James Dwight Dana 37
Sir John William Dawson 37
John Wesley Powell 40
Clarence King 43
Florence Bascom 44
3. Geologic Time: From an Early Geologic Time Scale 47
The Age of the Earth: Geologic Time 47
About the Time Scale of the Earth: Ordering of Events through
Relative Age-D ating 48
Development of the Geologic Time Scale 52
Abraham Werner and an Early Geologic Time Scale 52
Expansion of the Time Scale of Geology 55
Periods of the Paleozoic Era 55
Periods of the Mesozoic Era 63
Periods of the Cenozoic Era 65
Geologic Eras 67
Measuring Time: The Final Frontier 67
viii Contents
4. Geologic Time: Measuring Time and the Nature of Deep Time 69
Quantifying Time: Numerical Dating 69
Radioactivity and Isotopes: History and Use in Geology 70
The Present Geologic Time Scale 74
Mapping the Geologic Time Scale 78
Deep Time: A New Orientation to Geologic Time 81
5. Plate Tectonics: History of the Revolution in Earth Sciences 82
How the Crust of the Earth Moves: Overview of Plate Tectonics 82
Setting the Stage for Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics 83
Eduard Suess and His Tectonics 85
Antarctic Exploration, the Terra Nova Expedition, and Plate Tectonics 88
Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift 92
Data for Continental Drift 96
Mechanisms for Continental Drift: Early Ideas 101
Post– World War II Exploration of the Ocean Floor: A Unified
Theory of Plate Tectonics 102
6. Plate Tectonics: Oceans, Continents, Plates, and How
They Interact 114
Plate Tectonics Theory 115
Divergent Plate Boundaries 118
Convergent Plate Boundaries 120
Transform Plate Boundaries 122
Hotspots and Diffuse Boundary Zones 124
Diffuse Boundaries 127
Unknown or Speculative Boundaries 128
Consequences of Plate Tectonics 129
Past and Present Tectonics 132
Tying It All Together 133
7. Life on the Earth: Evolution, Extinctions, and Biodiversity 137
Development and Change of Life on the Earth: Evolution and
Natural Selection 137
Charles Darwin, the Journey of HMS Beagle, and Natural Selection 140
Fossils and Preservation of Ancient Life 145
The Historical “Bone Wars” of Marsh and Cope: Filling Out the
Dinosaur Fossil Record 146
Genes, DNA, and Quantitative Biology 148
Toward a Unified Synthetic Theory of Evolution 150
Horse Fossils, Their Geologic History, and Change in
Environmental Conditions 152
Evolution in Action 154
Extinction Events and Their Impact on Evolution 157
Mass Extinctions 157
Contents ix
Biodiversity throughout the Geologic Record 160
Unifying Theories and the Future 161
8. Th e Biography of the Earth: The Precambrian Story 163
Hadean Eon, 4,600–4 ,000 Million Years Ago 165
Archean Eon, 4,000–2 ,500 Million Years Ago 170
Proterozoic Eon, 2,500–5 41 Million Years Ago 173
Snowball Earths and Emergence of More Complex Life 178
9. Th e Biography of the Earth: Paleozoic Era 181
Cambrian Period, 541–4 85.4 Million Years Ago 182
Ordovician Period, 485.4–4 43.8 Million Years Ago 187
Silurian Period, 443.8–4 19.2 Million Years Ago 190
Devonian Period, 419.2–3 58.9 Million Years Ago 190
Carboniferous Period, 358.9–2 98.9 Million Years Ago 193
Permian Period, 298.9–2 51.9 Million Years Ago 195
10. Th e Biography of the Earth: Mesozoic Era 200
Triassic Period, 251.9–2 01.3 Million Years Ago 201
Jurassic Period, 201.3–1 45.0 Million Years Ago 205
Cretaceous Period, 145.0–6 6.0 Million Years Ago 207
11. B iography of the Earth: Cenozoic Era 214
Paleogene Period, 66.0–2 3.03 Million Years Ago 215
Neogene Period, 23.03–2 .58 Million Years Ago 220
Quaternary Period, 2.58 Million Years Ago to Present 223
12. The Earth’s Impact on Life and Life’s Impact on the Earth 229
The Earth: Interconnected Systems 230
Population Matters 232
Geosphere– Human Interaction 234
Hydrosphere–H uman Interaction 237
Biosphere– Human Interaction 241
Atmosphere and Climate–H uman Interaction 243
Interfaces among All Spheres 244
Soils and Their Significance 245
Temperature, Weather, and Climate 247
The Dynamic Carbon Cycle 248
Song of the Earth and Implications 253
Looking Backward to Look Forward 254
Glossary 257
Notes 273
Bibliography 307
Index 337
