Table Of Contentʜ ʟɴɴ ʜʟ ɴɪ ɴ ʟɪɪʟ ɪɴ
ʀɪɢʜ--ɪɴʀɪɴ ʀɴ: ʟʀɪɴɢ ʜ
ʀɪɢʜ ɪɴʀɪɴ ɪɴ ʜɪʟ, ɴ ʟɴ
ɴ ʀɢʏ
ʙʀɪɪ ʀʟʟɪɴɪ ɴ
ʜɪ ʙɪ ʜ ʀɴ ɢʀɴɴ ʜ
ʟɴɴ ʜʟ ɴɪ ʀ ʜ ɢʀ ʀ
ʜɪʟʜʏ, ʟɴɴ, ʙʀ
DECLARATION
IcertifythatthethesisIhavepresentedforexaminationfortheMPhil/Ph.D.degreeoftheLondon
SchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScienceissolelymyownworkotherthanwhereIhaveclearly
indicatedthatitistheworkofothers(inwhichcasetheextentofanyworkcarriedoutjointlybyme
andanyotherpersonisclearlyidentifiedinit). isthesisislicensedundercreativecommonslicence
attribution-noncommercial-sharealike.International(CCBY-NC-SA.) Iwarrantthatthis
authorisationdoesnot,tothebestofmybelief,infringetherightsofanythirdparty. Icanconfirm
thatmythesiswascopyeditedforconventionsoflanguage,spellingandgrammarbyRichardGlyde
andthecompanyEditage. StefanBauchowitzprovidedsupportwiththeuseofLaTex
Ideclarethatmythesisconsistsofwords.
Forafulldescriptionofthelicencefollowthislinkhttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/..
ABSTRACT
e Right to Information (RTI) – a right every individual has to access public information held
by governments – is now established in more than countries. RTI laws set up a new logic in
government: availabilityofpublicinformationistheprincipleandsecrecytheexception. RTIlaws
createnewpublicinformationarenaswhereseveralactorsrequest,releaseandusepublicinformation
for several purposes. In this work, I seek to explore why RTI arenas based on similar principles,
workdifferentlyleadingtodifferentoutputs.Myexplanationisbasedonahistorical-institutionalist
perspectivearguingthatoriginsoftheselawsandpreviousinstitutionalstructuresmatter. Iarguethat
threefactorshelptoshapethesearenas: thelevelofparticipationinthepolicy-makingprocess,the
professionalisationofstatebureaucracyandRTIenforcementinstitutions. ecombinationofthese
factorsgivesusthreedifferentkindsofarenas:functional,mixedandcontested. Idevelopaconceptual
framework,operatingatamiddle-rangetheorylevel,toanalysetheroleRTIlaws,requesters,the
state,andtheexistenceofRTIenforcementinstitutionsplayineachconfiguration. Ishowhowthese
arenasevolveandwork,runningastructuredandfocusedcomparisonofthreecasestudies: Uruguay,
ChileandNewZealand. isworkshowshowthesearenasendedupdifferinginoutputssuchas
availabilityofpublicinformationandefficiencyinprocessingRTIrequests,aswellastheexistenceof
effectiveaccountabilitymechanismstoresolvedisputesaboutpublicinformation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Inthecourseofthisresearch,Ihaveacquiredmanydebts. Iwascarefultowritethemdown,butitis
verylikelythatthefollowinglistwillnotcoverallofthemnorIwillbeabletorepaythem. Inthis
age,afterall,wearealwaysindebtedtosomeone.
Aresearchprojectcannotbedeliveredwithoutsponsors,towhomIamverygrateful. Uruguayan
citizenscontributedtothisresearchthroughtheCarlosQuijanoscholarship(MinistryofEducation
andCulture)andtheAgencyforResearchandInnovation(ANII)scholarship.Britishtaxpayersalso
contributedthroughtheLSEgovernmentdepartmentscholarship.eLSEtravelsupportscholarship,
theLSE–SantanderTravelFundandtheECPRPh.D.scholarshipallowedmetocarryoutfieldwork
researchandtakepartinseminarsandconferencesrelatedtothistopic. Inaddition,MarcosScrollini
and Juana Martinez (my grandparents) contributed in decisive moments to this Ph.D. with part
oftheirsavings. Administrativestaffmanagingthesescholarshipswereverypatient. Inparticular,
GeorginaLazarini,GracielaVernengo,MadeleineBoth,JosephineBurchellandImogenWitherswere
excellentliaisonswithintheseinstitutions.
SilvanaFumegaandAndrewEcclestoneintroducedmetothistopiceightyearsago. Iamthankful
fortheirencouragementandfriendshipthroughoutthisprocess. Bothprovidedcommentsthathave
improvedmyunderstandingofthisfield. AndrewandhiswifeZiawerekindenoughtohostme
duringpartofmyfieldworkinNewZealand. RobLaking,BobGregoryandConradoRamostrusted
metofinishaPh.D.IhopeIhavehonouredthistrust. Robalsoprovidedextensivecommentsand
kindsupportthroughthisresearch. ColeenLakingwasalsokindenoughtoletmestayattheirhome
whendoingfieldwork.
WhenIfirstarrivedatthisUniversity,IhadtheprivilegeofmeetinganexceptionalcohortofPh.D.
students. Inparticular,Isharedthesejoyfulearlydays(andsomenot-so-joyfulfollowingyears)with
GustavoBonifaz,LauraRobbins,FelineFreier,MohanadHageAli,MiranNordelan,SashaPerson,
Suzanne Morrison and Caroline Armstrong. It has been a long journey, and it was great to share
thiswiththem. WhenIlookedforaphysicalspacetoworkinatthisUniversity,Iwasdrawntoa
particularroomknownasH(technicallyHandtodaynolongerexistent). isroomhada
strangedynamicofitsown. JoseOlivaswaskindenoughtowelcomemeandshowedmetheropesof
LSEacademicandadministrativelife,amongmanyotherthings. Iamreallythankfultohimforall
hishelp. Inthisroom,Imetpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundswhochallengedmyideas,sharedtheir
thoughts(includinginallsortsofoff-topicconversations)suchasLilaCaballero,JulioGonzalez,Ting
Luo,AshikurRahman,MatthewWhiting,JohanessWolff,UrsulaDurand,MartaWojciechowska,
Pinar Dinc, Ellie Knott, Randi Solhjell, Gisela Calderon, Kathleen Henehan, , Martin Williams,
KennethBunker, EdGareth, MariaBrock, IzabellaCorrea, PonSouvannaseng, JoyceSuhjinLee,
DominikaSpyratou,MariaKyriakidou,PaolaRomero,AnahiWiedenbrug,HolkeBrammerand
KateAlexander. InH,JurgenBraunsteinandNinfaFuentesprovidedthemostentertaining(and
caustic)commentsaboutacademicandworldlymattersthroughthetimeIwasworkinginthisPh.D.
Ievenmanagedtounderstandabitof‘quant’politicalsciencethankstoIgnaziodeFerrari. Stefan
BauchowitzshowedmethevirtuesofLaTeXandparsimony.
BenWorthyandTomMcCleankindlyinvitedmetotheworkshopstheyorganisedatUCL,which
playedanimportantroleinmyunderstandingofRTIinBritainandelsewhere. Benwasalsovery
generous in introducing me to new literature and sharing his thoughts on this matter, as well as
connectingmewithotheracademicsinthisfield. ItookpartinpanelsattheTransparencyConference
in New York (), Utrecht () and Paris (), as well as in a workshop at the University
ofLausanne,kindlyconvenedbyAlbertMeijer,PatrickVilleneuveandMartialPasquier. Iwishto
thanktheparticipantsinthesepanelsandtheconvenerswhocontributedtochallengingmythinking
aroundthistopicandsharedtheirinsightsonthismatter. ExchangeswithGregMicheneralsohelped
metounderstandmoreaboutthisliterature. Inthecontextoftheseconferences(andbeyondthem),I
hadseveralexchangeswithMarcosMendiburuandHelenDarbishire. Marcoswasalwayssupportive
ofthisresearchandgenerouslyprovidedcommentsonseveralchapters. Helenhasbeenextremely
supportiveandIadmireherprofessionalismandhardworkinthisfield.
IamalsoverythankfultotheBritishNGOMySociety,inparticulartoTonyBowden,forsharing
and explaining the virtues of what was then a fairly unknown software called Alaveteli. Gabriela
Rodriguez(asoftwareengineerandfriend)andIsetuptheprototypeusingAlavetelifortheUruguayan
casestudy,alsodrawingonthepreviousworkdevelopedbyDavidCaboandVictoriaAndericawith
AccessInfoinSpain. Withoutthiswork,theUruguayancasestudywouldnothavehadaccesstoany
reliabledataaboutFOIrequests. WorkingwithGabriela,inthoseearlydaysandnow,hasbeenfun,
challengingandaprivilege. InUruguay,theFOIwebportalquesabes.uybasedonthissoftwarewas
finallymadepossiblebyDATA,alocalNGO.MarianaMas,DanielCarranza,FernandoUvaland
VictoriaEsteves,dearfriendsandcolleagues,madethepushtolaunchtheportal,addingtheirvaluable
expertiseinpolicy,communications,designandsoftwareengineering. isinitialcollaborationled
to more adventures together until today. I would also like to express my gratitude to a group of
volunteers,includingJuanBorchard,MartinCedesandJavierGomez,whospenttimefixingbugs
andhelpingwiththeusabilityofthiswebsite.
ChristianSchuster,mycolleagueinthisPh.D.programme,providedearlycommentsonpartof
this work, which helped to frame my thinking. Nicolas Trajtenberg – also a Ph.D. student on a
differentjourney–crossedhisacademicboundariestodiscussmethodologyinsocialscienceswith
me. TimDavies-anotherPh.D.studentanddearcolleague-providedcommentsonaninitialpaper
onthismatter.
InUruguay,IamparticularlygratefulfortheadvocacyworkEdisonLanza(CAINFO)developed
tosupportquesabes.uy,aswellasforhisassistanceintheUruguayancasestudyintermsofresearch
andpreviousworkwedevelopedtogether. TaniadaRosa,alsofromCAINFO,sharedherinsights
aboutRTIintheUruguayancasestudy. AlsoinUruguay,IwanttothankKarenVanRompaeyfor
herassistance(andcheerfulwords)duringthisresearch,aswellasCarolinaVeigaforherassistance
onseveralresearchmatters. CivilservantsworkinginRTIingovernmentsuchasVirginiaPardo,
MarianaGattiandGabrielDelPiazzowerealsoverykindinsharingtheirworkandinformation.
PabloLandoni’sviewalsocontributedwhenwedevelopedanarticleoneducationandRTIforthe
Uruguayancase. AttheUniversityoftheRepublic,PedroNarbondo,ConradoRamosandGuillermo
Fuentesallowedmetoorganiseaworkshoptosharemyideasandprovidedveryconstructivefeedback.
Dr. GuillermoMoncecchireadthisdraftforfunandprovidedveryvaluablecomments. Iamalso
thankfultotheparticipantsofseveralworkshopsorganisedbytheUruguayangovernmentandDATA
Uruguayfortheirinsights.
InChile,IamindebtedtoKennethBunkerwhohostedmeandhelpedmetogetthebasicsof
Chilean politics. Pablo Capomassi kindly provided a place to stay. My colleague Daniela Costa
enlightenedmeabouttherealityofChileanpublicadministration. FelipeHeusserandtheteamof
CiudadanoInteligentesharedtheirinsightswithmeabouttheirwebsiteplatformandwork. Maria
SotomayorwaskindenoughtotranslateintoEnglishsomefairlycomplexwordsin‘chilensis’. Rafael
PastorwasverygenerousinsharinghisknowledgeaboutpublicmanagementinChile. eteam
fromProAcceso,XimenaSalazarinparticular,werealsoveryhelpful. ClaudiaLagosandherteamat
theUniversityofSantiagoexplainedthecontextandcontentoffreedomofexpressioninChile,as
didMiguelPazfromelMostradorandPoderopedia. EoloDiazTenderoandCarolinaGarciaatthe
CouncilforTransparencykindlyprovidedmewithmaterialsandexplainedthecontextoftheirwork.
JuanPriceandhisfamilywelcomedmeintheirhome,andmademefeellikejustanothermemberof
thefamilyduringmystay.
InNewZealand,IwouldliketothankthestaffofVictoriaUniversityofWellingtonLibrary(Old
Building)whoworkedhardtosecureaccesstolong-forgottenthesesandmanuscripts. DavidClemens
providedmewithabibliographyfortheNZcasestudyandaveryusefulquote. eOfficeofNew
ZealandOmbudsmanallowedmetotakepartintheInternationalOmbudsmanConferenceinNew
Zealand,whichwasessentialtocarryoutfieldwork. IamalsoindebtedtoProfessorChrisEichbaum
whohelpedtounderstandmoreabouttheNewZealandcontext. Rob(@delineator)alsoshowed
methecommitment(andoccasionalfrustration)activistscanhavewhendealingwithRTIinNew
Zealand. IamalsothankfultotheeditoroftheblogNortighturnforsharinghisknowledge.
DuringthecourseofthisPh.D.,Ialsohadtheopportunitytoactasagraduateteachingassistant
atGV,acourseconvenedbyProfessorEdwardPageandProfessorMartinLodge,whereIalso
workedwithmycolleagueJulieVogt. ecourseaddedtomyunderstandingofpublicpolicyand
teaching. Iamthankfultotheconvenersandmyteachingcolleaguesandtothestudentswhotook
partinthecourse.
Afterthisworkwasdefended,ProfessorAlasdairRobertsandProfessorMartinLodgeprovided
valuablecommentsthatIhaveincorporatedinthistext.
Lastbutnotleast,IwouldliketothankmysupervisorProfessorFranciscoPanizzaandmyadviser
ProfessorEdwardPage. ProfessorPanizzacarriedouthisdutyasasupervisorwithpatience,diligence,
empathy,andgenerosity. Overtheyears,Ilearnedagreatdealfromhisacademicandpersonalvirtues.
Franciscofollowedtheevolutionofthisworkthroughversionafterversion,providingfeedbackat
everystepandchallengingmetoimproveit. ProfessorPagealwayshadakindword,constructive
feedback and kept advising me on how my work could be improved. His timely interventions
contributedtosteerthisprojectinwhatIhopeistherightdirection.
Someearlyandsmalldecisionsmatter. Myparents,MirtaandAlfredo,decidedIshouldstudy
Englishandfosteredmycuriosity. Iamindebtedtothemformakingsuchdecisionsandtheirsupport
throughout this project. On a deeply personal note, I would like to thank Ana and Odin. Ana –
my partner – went through this Ph.D. with me with all that this implies. Her love enhanced my
commitmenttofinishthiswork.Shealsowentthroughthemanuscriptlookingfortyposandensuring
referenceswereintherightplace. Idon’tseehowIcouldhavefinishedthisendeavourwithouther
support. Odin – our small dog – came into our lives a little later. A faithful (yet mischievous)
companion,wespentseveralmorningstogetherwritingandeditingthispiece. Afinalthanksshould
gotothosewhowillremainunnamedandtrustedIwouldrepresenttheirviewsfairly. Needlessto
say,allthemistakesanderrorsinthisworkremaintheresponsibilityoftheauthor.
London–Montevideo–SomewhereovertheAtlanticOcean
F.S.M.
CONTENTS
ɪɴʀɪɴ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Righttoinformation: historyandcontextofamulti-disciplinaryfield . . . . . . . .
. Comparativeaccesstoinformation: thestateofthefield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Overviewofthiswork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʀɪɪɢɴ-ʜ-ʀɪɴ ʀɴ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. DefiningRTIarenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. PrinciplesofRTIlaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. OndifferenttypesofRTIarenasanddifferentoutputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Participationinthepolicymakingprocess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Professionalisationofthestatebureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. eexistenceofRTIenforcementinstitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. reedifferentconfigurations: Functional,mixedandcontestedarenas . . .
. ElementsinRTIarenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Right-to-informationlaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. DemandinginformationinaRTIarena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. RTIEnforcementinstitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Feedbackloops: changeandcontinuityinaRTIarena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʜʟɢʏ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Acomparativeapproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Researchdesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Datagathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʜ ʟɪɪ ɴʜɪɴ ɪɴ ɴ ʟɴ(ʀ) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. equestforaccesstoinformation: theemergenceoftheNewZealandRTIarena .
.. Aworldofsecrecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. A‘fairgo’inNewZealand: RTIandtheeventsthatunchainedchange . . .
.. epolicymix: civilsocietyandunexpectedpolicyentrepreneurs . . . . . .
.. Anabsentpoliticalwill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. eNewZealandRTIarena: – . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. NewZealandRTIlaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents
.. estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Demandinginformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Snipersandinnocentrequesters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. RTIEnforcementinstitutionintheNewZealandRTIarena . . . . . . . .
. eevolutionoftheNewZealandRTIarena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Feedbackloops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Aotearoa: sunshineatitsbest,yetalongwhitecloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʙʟɪ ɪɴʀɪɴ ɪɴ ʜɪʟ:ɪ ʀɴ . . . . . . . . . .
. Context: democracyintransition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. e‘windowofopportunity’forRTIinChile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Chile’sRTIarena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. ChileanRTIlaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. eChileanstate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. DemandinginformationintheChileanRTIarena . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. CouncilforTransparency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Conclusion: Amixedarena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʀɢ:ʏɴ ʀɪ ʀɴ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Publicsecrets‘alauruguaya’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. TowardsaRTIreform: firststepsandnoopportunityforreform . . . . . . . . . .
.. Policyentrepreneursgetorganised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. PoliticsandpolicyintheSenate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. eUruguayanRTIarena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. UruguayanRTIlaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. eUruguayanstate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. DemandinginformationintheUruguayanRTIArena . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Aweakenforcementinstitution: APIUandtheroleofthejudiciary . . . . .
. Uruguay: initialfeedbackloops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. AcontestedRTIarena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʀɪ ʀɴ:ʀɪ ʀɪ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ElementsconfiguringaRTIarena: participation,statebureaucracyandRTIenforce-
mentinstitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. Participationinthepolicymakingprocess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Professionalisationofthestatebureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. RTIEnforcementinstitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ChangeinaRTIarena: feedbackloops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. DifferentRTIarenasworkingdifferentleadingtodifferentoutputs . . . . . . . . .
ɴʟɪʀ:ɴɪɪɢɴ-ʜ-ʀɪɴ ʀɴ ʀɪɪ . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Maincontributionsofthisworkinthecontextofthecurrentstateoftheliterature .
. eimplicationsofthisresearchforpractitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ɴɴ
. Futureresearch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ʙɪʙʟɪɢʀʜʏ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ɴɴ: ʟɪ ɪɴɪ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description:the LSE–Santander Travel Fund and the ECPR Ph.D. scholarship allowed me to carry . Council for Transparency kindly provided me with materials and explained the .. until, in 2008, the government of the day decided to create a national standard . security apparatus as a result of the 'war on terror
